1.
<Epidemiology of Social Stress>
1.LIfe Stress: 1.stress life events
common to many life event indices
2.enduring or chronic stressors
reported life conditions and situations
advantage: allow shorthand reference to an array of possible objective social realies/typically reflect realities that most consider objectively stressful
3.traumas
occurring before adulthood vs. during respondent's lifetime
2.
<Epidemiology of Social Stress>
2 hypothesis: 1.social stress is an important determinant of mental health status
2.sex, marital status, age, and social class affect mental health because of social status differences in exposure to stress
NOT been effectively tested because adequate measurement of stress exposure is not available yet
3.
<Epidemiology of Social Stress>
2 interpretations of social epidemiologic observations: 1) social causation hypothesis
2) social selection hypothesis
4.
<Epidemiology of Social Stress>
2.Indexing Social Statuses: grouping into 4 categories because* limited to the intuitive appeal and need for large enough numbers in each age category to assure stable estimates of varions
5.
<Epidemiology of Social Stress>
3 Measures: 1.Life stress
2.Indexing Social Statuses
3.Mental Health Measures
6.
<Epidemiology of Social Stress>
3.Mental Health Measures: focus on 2 impression measures as primary outcomes of stress
1)depressive symptomatology by CES-D
2)Major Depressive Disorder by DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS
7.
<Epidemiology of Social Stress>
advantage of using subjective reports of chronic stress: allow shorthand reference to an array of possible objective social realies/typically reflect realities that most consider objectively stressful
8.
<Epidemiology of Social Stress>
author debates: whether differences in mental health based on social statuses reflect differences in exposure to stressful life experiences or differences in vulnerability to stress
9.
<Epidemiology of Social Stress>
AUTHORS FIND THAT
widely held conclusion:
social status differences in vulnerability to stress are more consequential than differences in stress exposure: PREMATURE
10.
<Epidemiology of Social Stress>
best estimate of contemporary stress exposure: operant burden
11.
<Epidemiology of Social Stress>
increasing levels of occupational prestige associated with: decreasing levels of depressive symptoms and rates of depressive disorders
12.
<Epidemiology of Social Stress>
Methods: -residents of metropolitan Toronto
-age group 18-55 years
-central dependent variables: substantial risks for psychiatric and substance abuse problems
13.
<Epidemiology of Social Stress>
Pearline's view: stressful events and life circumstances are rooted in structural contexts
-ongoing and difficult conditions of daily life -> chronic stressors
14.
<Epidemiology of Social Stress>
women report more stress than men but only when events occurring to significant others
=women tend to have a wider domain of social concern/emotional ''cost of caring'': -
15.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>: examine selection and causation hypothesis to investigate association between mental health and education attainment
-data comes from Dunedin
16.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
-aim of this study: to examine whether low SES serves as a cause or consequence of mental illness, focused on cohort of adolescents as they made the transition to adulthood
-educational attainment as a proxy for SES in early adulthood
17.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
''causation''hypothesis: a wide array of mechanisms through which SES may affect psychopathology
18.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
''selection'' perspective leads to the expectation that: disorders will have smaller**, diluted prevalence rates across all SES levels of disadvantaged group BECAUSE ethnic discrimination hinders social mobility and keeps greater numbers of healthy members at lower SES levels
19.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
"causation" perspective leads that: disorders will have higher** prevalence rates among disadvantaged group
20.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
"selection" hypothesis: mental disorders are overrepresented in lower socioeconomic strata as a consequence of impaired social mobility
21.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
adolescent mental disorders more likely to be found: in families with low SES
22.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
analysis suited to study mental disorders and educational attainment for 4 reasons: 1)prospective longitudinal study
2)evaluated subjects for a wide array of DSM-3 disorders
3)studied sample during transition from adolescence to young adulthood, developmental period that includes both the peak onset of psychiatric disorders and normative educational transitions that constitute a key first step in status attainment process
4)high response rate in Dunedin study diminished* any bias introduced by selective missing ata
23.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
differences in relation between SES and mental disorders emerged when mental disorders were considered individually: ...
24.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
different mental health problems are differently related to social status: anxiety and depression do not impair educational attainment and do NOT require special intervention to counteract the effect on educational attainment
-conduct disorder and ADD uniquely impair educational attainment and need interventions
25.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
education is key factor in status attainment process: -
26.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
internalizing disorders had NO effect on 1)_____, while externalizing disordes exerted a strong negative (-) influence
-internalizing disorders are NOT selected
-strong selection processes for externalizing disorders: educational attainment
27.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
internalizing vs. externalizing factors: former: turned inward, anxiety and depression
latter: ''acting out'' behaviour eg)poorly controlled, impulsive behaviour, attention problems, hyperactivity
28.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
limitations of causation and selection research: fail to provide a test to determine if process is operating exclusively
29.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
longitudinal Dunedin study enables us: avoid retrospective reports by focusing on formative transition from adolescence to adulthood
-examine disorder-specific relations with SES
30.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
lower educational attainment more likely to experience: increases in anxiety and antisocial disorders but NOT depression
31.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
Mental Health Measures: DISC-C and DIS
-both used to obtain diagnoses of mental disorders in the 12 months prior to the study member's 15th and 21st birthday interview
-internalizing disorders of anxiety and depression
-externalizing disorders of conduct disorder, attention deficit disorder, and antisocial personality disorder
32.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
NEED for disorder-specific explanations of the relations between social status and mental disorders: conduct disorder and ADD (externalizing disorders) exert strong selection effects
-disrupt status attainment process during transition from adolescence to adulthood
33.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
parents'occupational status measured with: Elley and Irving scale
34.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
peak rise period for emergence of new cases of DSM mental disorders: during transition from adolescence to young adulthood
35.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
PROSPECTIVE study of adolescents as they make transition into adulthood: allow to evaluate temporal ordering of mental disorders and education attainment more directly than in the past
36.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
relation between mental disorders and social status more ROBUST using continuous symptom scales: ...
37.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
study of selection and causation centrers on temporal ordering and onset of mental disorders (before or after low SES): occurs BEFORE: selection
occurs AFTER: causation
38.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
two main research strategies to determine temporal roder between mental disorders and SES: -rely on retrospective study
-those who failed to make major educational transitions reported an overrepresentation of anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and conduct disorder
39.
<Low socioeconomic stress and mental disorders: a longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood>
used OLS regressions to predict age-21 disorders from educational attainment: at age 21, low educational attainment more likely to meet DSM criteria for either conduct disorder or antisocial personality disorder
40.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
*Social Stressors
-stress research guided by 2 modal concerns: 1)primary interest in naturalistic stressors
2)mediation and outcomes of stress
sociologists interested in primary interest in naturalistic stressors
41.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
2 reasons why same stressors do not lead to same stressful outcomes: 1. different configurations of unobserved stressor may surround the observed stressor
2. different values may endow the same stressor with different meanings
42.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
3 ways of convergence of events and chronic strains: 1.events lead to chronic strains
2.chronic strains lead to events
3.strains and events provide meaning contexts for each other
43.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
central task of research into stress: explain why individuals exposed to similar stressor conditions do not suffer same outcomes
-> partly because of social values
-hypogamous pople particularly vulnerable to marital stress
44.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
chronic strains as stressors: enduring problems, conflicts, and threats that many people face in daily lives
45.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
Coping: own belief as they attempt to avoid or lessen impact of life problems
-all coping serves either 1)to change the situation
2)manage the meaning of the situation
3)keep symptoms of stress within manageable bounds
46.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
critics of Holmes and Rahe's Social Readjustment Rating Scale: including ''injury and illness''
-failing to distinguish between positive events and negative events
-failing to include events common to women and people of lower status
-BUT serve as an important example of checklist measures of acute stress
47.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
each type of stressor may contain multiple subtypes of stressors: -
48.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
Essential element of sociological study of stress: presence of similar types of levels of stress among people who are exposed to similar social and economic conditions, incumbents in similar roles, from similar situational contexts
49.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
for socialist, attractive feature of stress concept: inseparability between circumstances of social life and individual functioning
50.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
important life problems do not exist in isolation from other problems: -
51.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
introduction of stress process framework: -
52.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
largest responsibility for explaining outcome differences as mediators: 1.coping
2.social support
53.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
Life events as stressors
=3 reasons for surge of live event research: 1. Hans Seyle provided important theoretical foundation for events research
2. method was developed to assess simple and objective fashion the magnitude of eventful change experienced by individuals
3.early success in showing relationships between scope of eventful change and various indicator so fhealth
54.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
most influential measure of life event exposure** in early research on social stress: Holmes and Rahe's Social Readjustment Rating Scale
55.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
one way sociologists can gain some conceptual control over chronic stressors: focus their attention on problems that arise WITHIN boundaries of major social roles and role sets
56.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
primary stressors vs. secondary stressors: former: likely to occur first in people's experience esp. undesired or eruptive eg)untimely death of a loved one
more enduring or repeated eg)remarriage
latter: a consequence of the former
capable of producing more intense stress than former
eg) care of impaired relatives or friends
57.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
salient feature of sociological stress research: 1.stressors
2.mediators
3.outcomes
58.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
serious limitation of inquiry into stressors: tendency toward ''either-or'' thinking
59.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
several types of role strain (chronic): 1.role overload
demands on energy and stamina exceed capacities
commonly found in occupational and homemaker
2.interpersonal conflicts within role sets
-reported MORE OFTEN
-entail problems and difficulties that arise among those in sets of complementary roles eg) wife-husband, parent-child, or worker-supervisor
3.inter-role conflict
incompatible demands of multiple roles, esp. demands of work and family
4.role capacity
one is unwilling incumbent of a role
eg)housewives or retirees preferring outside employment/employed workers preferring to stay home with children
5.role restructuring
actors and role sets remain the same but aging process or extraneous exigencies force alterations in long-established patterns of expectation and interaction eg)rebellious teenager complaining that he is treated as a baby
-can result betrayal, status loss, violation of expectations
60.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
social support: NOT the clearest and best established theoretical links to social theory
-networks refer more directly to social attachments
-one's social network-> one's engagement with larger society
61.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
sociological study of social stress does NOT rely on: predictive models
62.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
sociologists examine outcomes through direct observation, medical records, or self-evaluations: ...
63.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
stress starts with an experience: -
64.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
Theory of life events research: ALL change is potentially harmful because all change requires readjustment
65.
<Sociological Study of Stress by Pearlin>
two types of stressors: 1.life events
2.chronic strains
66.
2 general patterns of findings of multiple outcome studies from 2 epidemiologic studies: 1) social characteristic has a farily consistent association witha broad range of psychiatric disorders
2) social characteristics is associated with SOME disorders, but not others
eg)positive association with occurrence of some disorders but a negative association with the occurrence of the disorders
67.
3 key elements of social consequences model: 1) associations between social attributes and mental health outcomes contingent on specific type of disorder
2) assumption that impact of social organization on mental health is causative in nature
3)idea that mental and emotional disorder is a normal byproduct of society
**this differs from disease model of medicine
->sociological research tends to look for the sources of mental disorder in the usual, ot the esoteric
68.
Aneschensel: Research in Mental Health: Social Etiology versus Social Consequences
(the author advocates for sociologists adapt this model): social consequences model
69.
Aneschensel: Research in Mental Health: Social Etiology versus Social Consequences
(two distinct approaches to identifying social risk factors for mental health problems): 1) social etiology model
2) social consequences model
70.
Aneschensel: Research in Mental Health: Social Etiology versus Social Consequences
<author argues that>: sociologists should take the lead in developing a research agenda that speaks to the multitude of ways in which society affects the mental health of its members
71.
Aneschensel: Research in Mental Health: Social Etiology versus Social Consequences
<social etiology model>: occurrence of one particular disorder
-identification of social risk factors associated with its occurrence
-predominant in sociological research
72.
author's argument why adopting social etiological model is no good: 1)mental health consequences of various social arrangements are underestimated
-> disorder-specific model undercounts the number of persons affected by adverse social conditions
2) obtain a biased estimate of mental health impact of social arrangements when consider only one condition
73.
Based on operant burden (best estimate of contemporary stress exposure): stress distribution corresponded very closely with depression across sex, age, marital status, and occupation
74.
best evidence supporting the need for multiple outcome studies come from 2 epidemiologic studies: 1) epidemiologic catchment area study
2) national comorbidity survey
75.
defining characteristics of social etiology model: focus on a single disorder
used in most medical and epidemiological research
76.
differences in mental health arise from: differences in quantity and/or nature of stress experienced by individuals differently situated in the social system
77.
impact of social arrangements on mental health tends to be NONspecific: -
78.
motivation of social etiology model: locate causes or origins of the disorder
79.
nature of outcomes to be investigated should be dictated by the aspect of social life that is being probed: -
80.
one of the key differences between sociological and etiological research: distinction between causality and noise
emphasizing explanation and prediction
81.
primary goals of social etiology model: prevention and treatment of the disorder
82.
selection and causation research faced 2 main obstacles: 1.temporal ordering of mental disorders and low SES difficult to establish without longitudinal research
2.absence of standardized psychiatric nosology
83.
social causation processes greater significance in relationships between social class and mental health (gender as well): -
84.
social consequences model: emphasize the consequences of various social arrangements on people's lives
-structural factor, eg) concentrated poverty, racial segregation, or gender stratification
85.
social consequences model indicators of social placement as signifying ongoing social processes that organize people's lives in ways that influence their mental health: ..
86.
social consequences model is concerned with: mental health consequences of specific** social arrangements
-nonspecific
87.
social consequences model is typically concerned with: ways in which location in society helps everyday experiences in ways that are deleterious to the mental health of some
88.
theories need to specify that a particular outcome is relevant
also identify full range of relevant outcomes in order to operationalize social consequences model: -
