| Term | Definition |
|---|
| Albert Einstein | Developed mathematical theories to explain the behavior of planetary motion and the movement of electrical particles; after 1900 theory of relativity. |
| American Civil War | Fought from 1861 to 1865; first application of Industrial Revolution to warfare; resulted in abolition of slavery in the United States and reunification of North and South. |
| Belgian Revolution | Produced Belgian independence from the Dutch; established a liberal constitutional monarchy. |
| Benjamin Disraeli | Leading conservative political figure in Britain in the second half of the 19th century; took initiative of granting vote to working-class males in 1867; typical of conservative politician making use of popular politics. |
| Charles Darwin | Biologist who developed theory of evolution of species; argued that all living species evolved into their present form through the ability to adapt in a struggle for survival. |
| Factory System | Not to be confused with the fortified ports of the commercial revolution; intensification of processes of production at single sites during the Industrial Revolution; involved greater organization of labor and firmer discipline |
| French Revolution | Revolution in France between 1789 and 1800; resulted in overthrow of Bourbon monarchy and old regimes; ended with establishment of French Empire under Napaleon Bonaparte; source of many liberal movements and constitutions in Europe. |
| Population Revolution | Huge growth in population in Western Europe beginning about 1730; prelude to Industrial Revolution; population of France increased 50 percent, England and Prussia 100 percent. |
| Radicals | Political viewpoint with origins in Western Europe during the 19th century; advocated broader voting rights than liberals; in some cases advocated outright democracy; urged reforms in favor of the lower classes. |
| Revisionism | Socialist movements that at least tacitly disavowed Marxist revolutionary doctrine; believed social success could be achieved gradually through political institutions. |
| James Watt | Devised a steam engine in 1770s during the Industrial Revolution that could be used for production; steam engine was utilized in textile industries, mining, and railroads. |
| Karl Marx | German socialist of the mid-19th century; blasted earlier socialist movements as utopian; saw history as defined by class struggle between groups out of power and those controlling the means of production; preached necessity of social revolution to create proletarian dictatorship. |
| Reform Bill of 1832 | Legislation passed in Great Britain that extended the vote to most members of the middle class; failed to produce democracy in Britain. |
| Otto van Bismarck | Conservative prime minister of Prussia; architect of German unification under Prussian king in 1870; utilized liberal reforms to attract support for conservative causes. |
| Louis XVI | Bourbon monarch of France who was executed during the radical phase of the French Revolution. (1792) |
| Protoindustrialzation | Preliminary shift away from agricultural economy in Europe; workers become full- or part-time producers of textile and metal products, working at home but in a capitalist system in which materials, work orders, and ultimate sales depended on urban merchants; prelude to Industrial Revolution. |
| Nationalism | Political viewpoint with origins in Western Europe in the 19th century; often allied with one of other "isms"; urged importance of national unity; valued a collective identity based on culture, race, or ethnic origin. |
| Feminist Movement | Sought various legal and economic gains for women, including equal access to professions and higher education; came to concentrate on right to vote; won support particularly from middle-class women; active in Western Europe at the end of the 19th century; revived in light of other issues in the 1960s. |
| Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen | Adopted during the liberal phase of the French Revolution; stated the fundamental equality of all French citizens; later became a political source for other liberal movements. |
| Mass Leisure Culture | An aspect of the later Industrial Revolution; based on newspapers, music halls, popular theater, vacation trips, and team sports. |
| Liberals | Political viewpoint with origins in Western Europe during the 19th century; stressed limited state interference in individual life, representation of propertied people in government; urged importance of constitutional rule and parliaments. |
| Napoleon Bonaparte | Rose within the French army during the wars of the French Revolution; Eventually became the general. Led a coup that ended the French Revolution; established French Empire under his rule; Defeated and deposed in 1815. |
| Chartist Movement | Attempt by artisans and workers in Britain to gain the vote during the 1840's; demands for reform beyond the Reform Bill of 1832 were incorporated into a series of petitions; movement failed. |
| Guillotine | Introduced as a method of humane execution; utilized to execute thousands during the most radical phase of the French Revolution known as the Reign of Terror. |
| American Revolution | Rebellion of English American colonies along Atlantic seaboard between 1775 and 1783; resulted in independence for former British colonies and eventual formation of the United States of America. |
| Greek Revolution | Rebellion in Greece against the Ottoman Empire in 1820; key step in gradually dismantling the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans. |
| Congress of Vienna | Met in 1815 after the defeat of France to restore the European balance of power. |
| French Revolution of 1848 | Overthrew the French monarchy established in 1830; Briefly established the second French republic. |
| French Revolution of 1830 | 2nd revolution against Bourbon Dynasty; a liberal movement that created a bourgeois government under a moderate monarchy. |
| Social Question | Issues related to workers and women in western Europe during the Industrial Revolution. |
| Socialism | Political movement with origins in Western Europe during the 19th century; urged an attack on private property in the name of equality; wanted state control of means of production, end to capitalist exploitation of the working man. |
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