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antecedents events that precede a response aversive stimulus a stimulus that is painful or uncomfortable avoidance learning learning to make a response in order to postpone or prevent discomfort behavioral contract a formal agreement stating behaviors to be changed and consequences that apply. classical conditioning a form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli cognitive map internal images or other mental representations of an area that underlie an ability to choose alternative paths to the same goal. conditioned emotional response an emotional response that has been linked to a previously non emotional stimulus by classical conditioning conditioned response a learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus conditioned stimulus a stimulus that evokes a response because it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus conditioning chamber an apparatus designed to study operant conditioning in animals; a skinner box continuous reinforcement a schedule in which every correct response is followed by a reinforcer. desensitization reducing fear or anxiety by repeatedly exposing a person to emotional stimuli while the person is deeply relaxed. discovery learning learning based on insight and understanding discriminative stimuli stimuli that precede rewarded and non rewarded responses in operant conditioning fixed interval schedule a reinforcer is given only when a correct response is made after a set amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response. fixed ratio schedule a set number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer higher order classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus is used to reinforce further latent learning learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and that remains unexpressed until reinforcement is provided negative reinforcement occurs when a response is followed by an end to discomfort or by the removal of an unpleasant event. neutral stimulus a stimulus that does not evoke a response observational learning learning achieved by watching and imitating the actions of another or noting the consequences of those actions.