KNES385 Unit 1
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154 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 How are motor skills learned and controlled? | i. Execution of simple movements ii. Expert performance iii. Infant mirror "learning" (learning to walk) iv. Rehabilitation (stroke, relearning) |
| Motor Control | understanding how the neuromuscular system functions to activate and coordinate the muscles and limbs involved in the performance of a motor skill. |
| Coordination | the patterning of body and limb motion relative to each other and to the environmental objects and events. |
| Motor Learning | study of the processes involved in acquiring and refining motor skills that promote or inhibit that acquisition |
| Skills Definition Ask yourself... | An action or task that has a specific goal to achieve Questions: Is it directed toward the attainment of a goal? Is it performed voluntarily? Has it been acquired by experience/practice? |
| Skill → Motor Skill | requires voluntary body/limb movement |
| Levels of Skillfulness: Characteristics of Skilled Performance | i. Adaptable ii. Consistent iii. Efficient |
| Movements | behavioral characteristics of specific limbs that are components of a skill |
| Taxonomy/Hierarchy (largest to smallest) | a. Goal: Put the ball in the basket b. Skill: Jump shot, dunk, lay up → Outcome Measures c. Movement: Characteristics that vary within and between people → process measures |
| Why do we classify skills? | a. Why? i. Simplifies discussion ii. Allows comparison across research iii. Provides context for coaches/therapists |
| Commonalities Classifying Skills | 1. All require concentration 2. All must focus attention on a specific point or thing |
| Differences Classifying Skills | 1. Some have stable, predictable environment in which the skill is performed some do not. 2. Some use the whole body, some just use hands/arms 3. Some are continuous, some are sporadic 4. Some involve fast movements, some slow 5. Some involve standing posture, some seated |
| Gross Size of Musculature Used Classifications | Use large musculature involve less movement precision. a.Fundamental Motor Skills: jumping, locomotion |
| Fine Size of Musculature Used Classifications | Require control of small muscles, hand eye coordination Writing, typing, sewing |
| Discrete Type of Movement Classifications | Have clearly specified beginning and end (e.g hitting a switch) -one movement skills. |
| Serial Type of Movement Classifications | Involve a series of discrete movements (e.g playing piano, hammering a nail) |
| Continuous Type of Movement Classifications | having arbitrary state and end (swimming) |
| Low Motor Cognitive Dimension Type of Movement Classifications | cognitive demand: Actions are automatic with little thinking about task required (walking) |
| Moderate Motor Cognitive Dimension Type of Movement Classifications | cognitive demand |
| High Motor Cognitive Dimension Type of Movement Classifications | the motor component is less significant than the cognitive element |
| Closed Stability of Environment Type of Movement Classifications | Environment refers to the characteristics of objects/people the skill is performed with. Environment does not change while performing the skill. These tend to be self-paced, the object "waits" for your action |
| Open Stability of Environment Type of Movement Classifications | Environment is changing during performance of the skill. These are usually not self-paced, require constant adjustment |
| Ability | a stable trait of capacity of the individual that is a determinant of a person potential for the performance of specific skills. a. Generally though to be hereditary/genetically determined and by large unmodified by experience. b. The hardware people bring to a task. |
| Individual Differences | Stable, enduring differences among people that contribute to differences in task performance. a. Eg: body type, cultural background, emotional make-up, developmental stage, abilities |
| Ability vs Skill, The Breakdown | i. Ability: 1.Stable 2.Inherited traits 3.Few in number 4.Underlie performance of many skills ii. Skills: 1.Modified by practice 2.Developed 3.Many in number 4.Depend of different subset of abilities |
| Generalized Motor Ability | Abilities are highly related and can be characterized by a single, global ability. i. Minimal empirical evidence. ii. Research evidence for specificity of motor abilities, correlation |
| Specificity of Motor Ability? | Abilities are relatively independent. The ""all around" athlete has a high number of abilities i. Research evidence for specificity of motor abilities → Correlation |
| Motor Performance? | Motor performance is what we actually measure |
| How to measure? | i. Accuracy: How accurate was the shot/throw? ii. Time/Speed: How fast did the person move? iii. Magnitude: How far did an object travel? |
| Hit/Miss Dichotomy Information Obtained from Error Scores | is there a difference in quality of performance? |
| Absolute Error (AE) | the absolute difference in relevant units between the criterion and the performance outcome. Error along a single dimension 1. Abs (xi-T) 2. We take multiple trials to gain a representative measure of performance...the average |
| Radial Error | AE for 2 dimensions. SEE SLIDE 1. Turning a corner what would be best to calculate? Radial error |
| Bias in Performance Outcomes | 1. Absolute measures of accuracy may hold insufficient information, fail to describe the tendencies of over/under shooting So we use constant error... |
| Constant Error (CE) | represent magnitude or error in a specific direction (no longer absolute) |
| Variability in Performance Outcomes | 1. Variability is a measure of consistency in performance. The typical measure is the standard deviation. Variable Error |
| Variable Error (VE) | is an index of how much variability there is in the accuracy of performance. (NOT a accuracy measure tho) |
| Continuous Skill | 1. Root mean square (RMSE) 2. Error between a participants displacement position curve and a criterion (ideal) curve. 3. Computes one error score for the total duration of the task. |
| Reaction Time (RT) | interval between the onset of a signal or stimulus, to the initiation of a response. NOT about completing the movement but about initiating the movement |
| What is the slowest sense for reaction time? | Vision is the slowest because it is very complicated the worst, we don't rely on vision |
| Simple Different types Rxn Time | RT: 200 milliseconds, 1/5th of a second a. A runner responding to the start of a race |
| Choice Different types Rxn Time | RT: 300-400 milliseconds a. Football player defending a receiver. |
| Discrimination Different types Rxn Time | RT: (solider deciding the difference between friend/foe) a. A bullet travels 3000 ft/sec, people must make split second situations |
| Electromyography (EMG) in RT measure | ii. Pre-motor RT: 40-80ms represents a central process BEFORE the limb actually starts to move. |
| EMG | measures the electrical activity of muscle to separate RT into central and peripheral components. |
| Process Measures Kinetics | -To understand what underlies performance we need process measures. -measurements of the forces which cause motion. Predominantly apply newton's laws of motion |
| Electromyography (EMG | Measures the electrical activity in muscle. Electrodes are attached to the skin superficial to the muscle belly |
| Internal Model | 1. Learning how to ice skate: torque (when you are keeping your balance standing) vs sheer force (gliding). Learn how to apply new forces. 2. When you learn a motor skill often times you are learning and new internal model that your body does automatic things so that you can perform the task as efficiently as possible |
| Internal Model Review | responding with your legs not just your arms, the anticipatory response of the NS. We automatically that shift when walking on ice. We have multiple internal models in our system that a ready to account for these different consequences of our movement. |
| Functional Magnetic Reasonance (fMRI) | Aligns atomic particles in tissues by magnetism. Different tissues return different radio signals. Determines the areas in the brain where it is the most oxygenated. Good Spatial resolution but poor temporal resolution (change |
| Pros Functional Magnetic Reasonance (fMRI) | i. Excellent spatial reasoning: you can really precisely get the activity in very small sections of the brain. ii. You can do simple tasks with this |
| Cons Functional Magnetic Reasonance (fMRI) | i. Indirect measure of the brain activity (not required to open of the skull ii. Susceptible to movement artifacts: 1. Cannot move so not necessarily "real world" iii. Use of the templates and atlases |
| Human Connectome | make functional connections of the brain. Can see the different areas in the brain. Trace the actual pathways, and how these pathways are connected while you are doing something a. Very faulty, complicated and detailed. Just starting. |
| Is it an objective measure? | i.A measure is objective if it can be employed consistently by different people. It is also objective if the measurement scale is appropriate. ii.Ex: Independently verify through different people. Doesn't matter who is measuring it. Having multiple watch the baby's eyes |
| Is it a valid measure? | This refers to whether a test measures what is supposed to measure. Does your measure have construct validity? Magnitude measures almost always do. However, is accuracy, consistency, bias a construct of your skill? |
| Is it a reliable measure? | Is the measurement repeatable? Deviations in the way a test is performed can result in markedly different results. As a result, change may be incorrectly attributed to difference in performance. |
| How to improving your tests objectivity, reliability, and validity | a. Consider the purpose of the skill b. Keep the test environment consistent c. Document your methodology d. Standardize measures e. Don't test yourself! |
| Motor Learning | Complex human behaviors acquired over time and development are the results of experience and observation, in essence they are learned. |
| Learning | is a relatively permanent change in capability to perform a skill. Refers to a change in the potential or capability to perform a behavior, why? i. Learning cannot be directly measured- it is inferred from performance. (Learning is a process but we measure the outcome not the process itself |
| Learning Process | Performance of Skills shows an improvement over a period of time. |
| Performance vs Learning Characteristics of the Learning Process | Just because you have improved performance it does not mean that you have learned (this can be short term) where as learning is long term. |
| Characteristics of the Learning Process | b. Performance becomes more consistence (less variable) over time i. Graph: variability decreasing over time |
| Persistence and Adaptable Characteristics of the Learning Process | c. There is greater persistence in the improvement made i. A skill that is learned persist even after months/years, like the prof juggling. ii. Relearning something starts at the level you left off at. d. Performance of skill becomes more adaptable |
| Performance Curves | methods of assessing learning by recording levels of performance across practice. a. Dependent variable for learning (arrow going up) b. Learning a new skill is typically characterized by one of four performance curves |
| Linear Performance Curves | expected but RARELY the case |
| Negatively Accelerated Performance Curves | Ceiling effect 1. Walking, weight lift |
| Positively Accelerated Performance Curves | 1. Wind surfing, you need an intense period in order to get this skill. 2. Unicycling |
| S-Shaped: Performance Curves | Ceiling effect 1. Slow then speed up then flat out again. |
| Improvement Performance Curves in Kinematic | performance can be assessed by how close the movement pattern matches the criterion |
| Consistency Performance Curves in Kinematic | can be assessed by the extent to which movement patterns vary |
| It is not wise to infer learning from practice because | a.Practice data provides no evidence for permanent/semi-permanent changes in behavior b.Performance during practice is susceptible to over estimating and under estimating learning c.Performance in practice may temporally plateau d. If you practice something and you're better at the end of practice, doesn't mean you have learned...what would I need to show beside improvement in performance? i.To be able to repeat at a similar level of performance as when you stopped. Maintaining level of performance over a retention period. |
| Assessing Learning by Retention | a. Pre test: measures ability to perform task before the treatment. b. Practice/Acquisition Period c. Post Test: Measures ability to perform task after period of practice d. Retention test: measures ability to perform task after a no-practice retention interval. |
| Assessing Learning by Transfer Negative/Positive | Transfer is learning describes how previous practice on a task influences the learning of a new skill a. Negative: where previous practice of one skills hinders learning of a new skill b. Positive: where previous practice in one skill assists learning of a new skill. |
| Transfer can define the appropriate sequencing of skills to be learned Significance of Transfer | i.Curricula tend to be organized in a simple to complex order ii.Early fundamental need to be in place before moving on iii.Skills classifications can be useful tool to guide transfer iv.PT's need an appropriate order of functional treatment |
| It can assess... Significance of Transfer | It can assess the effectiveness of practice conditions |
| Theoretical explanations for positive transfer of learning Significance of Transfer | i.Identical elements theory ii.Little overlap=little transfer, lots of overlap=lots of transfer iii.Transfer-appropriate processing theory |
| Mobility Simulator | apply forces and torques to the feet, simulate varied support surface conditions. a.Nintendo Wii: use of Wii in physical rehab settings (children with cerebral palsy) |
| How do you determine which theory is right? | Parsimonious: Choose the simpler answer |
| Cognitive Stage 3 Stage Model of Learning | give very simple ideas something that they can process without too much information. I'm going to tell you a simple pattern to reproduce. 1. Learner encounters cognitive problems and must integrate information 2. What should I do? How should I move? Large errors, variability |
| Associative Stage 3 Stage Model of Learning | (right now: internal model→ Your own representation of the movement so that you know what to do) 1. Learner makes associations b/w environmental cues and movements 2.Learner detects errors. Performance is refined variability and error decreases. |
| Autonomous Stage 3 Stage Model of Learning | 1.Learner performs skill in habitual or automatic manner 2.No conscious thought of action processes. Learner can divide attention |
| Stages of Learning | Decreased coherence (assessed by EEG) between T3 (cognitive associative area) and motor related cortical areas in expert performance |
| Stage 1 Gentile's 2 stage model | Getting the idea of the movement 1. The learner organizes a movement pattern, by delimiting the potential muscular response in tune with the demands of the environment. 2. Must discriminate... Regulatory Conditions Non-Regulatory Conditions 3. HIGHLY cognitive—problem solving. 4. Learner "leaves" stage 1 with a framework for the organization of the movement, but performance is variable and inefficient. |
| Stage 2 Gentile's 2 stage model | Fixation/Diversification 1. Learner must acquire: adaptability for the skill consistency economy of effort. iii. Closed ←→Open |
| Stage 1 Must discriminate... Regulatory Conditions Non-Regulatory Conditions Gentile's 2 stage model | a.Regulatory Conditions: Environmental features which specify how movement must be performed. b.Non-Regulatory Conditions: Environmental conditions |
| Closed ←→Open Stage 2 Gentile's 2 stage model | 1. Closed: a. Skills require fixation b. Learner must refine pattern for consistency 2. Open: a. Skills require diversification b. Learner must diversify the basic movement pattern. Must be highly tuned to the regulatory conditions. |
| Early Skill Learning Embedded Hierarchy...of coordination, control and skill | Emphasis with the synergy of coordination and control is upon assembling a new movement pattern (coordination) |
| Later in Skill Learning Embedded Hierarchy...of coordination, control and skill | when the movement pattern is assembled, the emphasis is upon scaling the movement pattern (control) |
| Bernstein's Degrees of Freedom | 1.The degrees of freedom in any system is the number of independent elements to be controlled. 2.DOF problem: how can a complex system act to constrain so many degrees of freedom to a functional unit? |
| Early Learning DOF | novice simplifies movement by freezing a portion of available DOF 1.Kids locking their legs to learn how to skate, artificially reducing the DOF. |
| Later Learning DOF | there is a release of the DOF dynamics of action become more apparent to the learner |
| Expert DOF | release and organization of DOF. Flexibility to freeze or release DOF at appropriate moments. |
| Why do we practice? | To increase our capability of performing skill in future situations (retention and/or transfer) |
| How do we optimize practice? | i. Should practice be consistent or varied? ii. How much practice is necessary? iii. How should practice be distributed? iv. Should we practice the whole skill or part of it? |
| Variability of Practice | a. The variety of movement or context characteristics experience during practice of a skill |
| Most theoretical stances embrace variability in practice such as | i. Schmidt (75): variety in learning experience forms schema. ii. Gentile (72): 1. to distinguish between regulatory and non-regulatory conditions. 2. Diversification in second stage of learning iii. Hanford et al (96): optimal task solutions through discovery learning in the perceptual motor workspace |
| When you vary practice | your performance may suffer but your learning may benefit. When you keep your practice narrow your performance may be better but your learning will suffer i. Poor performance in practice ii. Better performance in retention and transfer iii. What does this remind you of? 1. Improved performance during practice training does NOT equate to increased learning!!!!! iv. Why would poor performance during practice be beneficial for learning? |
| Performance Errors During Practice | a. Error signals can be used to modify subsequent movements. SEE SLIDE for picture THIS IS the internal model i. Training signals can used to modify descending motor commands. ii. The NS "learns" the relationship between descending motor commands and movement outcomes (via sensory feedback) 1. Analogous association phase of Fitts and Posner 3 stage model. |
| Context (Environment) Variability of Practice | Regulatory conditions, Non-Regulatory conditions i.When regulatory or non-regulatory vary in "real" performance, they should also vary in practice. |
| For Closed Skills Context (Environment) Variability of Practice | a. Inter-Trial Variability: practice should vary distances, ball characteristics. Ex: Golf, Tennis the environment should be quiet. b. No Inter-Trial Variability: Practice should not vary regulatory conditions (e.g distance) Ex: Basketball crowd distractions |
| Open Skills Context (Environment) Variability of Practice | a. There is always inter-trial variability regulatory and non-regulatory conditions should vary in practice b. For all skills early learners need LOW variability in practice until the task goal, ideas of movements are clear. |
| Open Skills, WHY? Context (Environment) Variability of Practice | i. WHY? Gentiles 2 stage model of learning. They need to have a clear definition to compare themselves too, they do not have an INTERNAL MODEL. 1. Stage 1: Getting an Idea of movement (discrimination between regulatory and non-regulatory conditions) a. Variability in practice may interfere with this stage. 2. Stage 2: Fixation and diversification, requires variability in practice. |
| Skill (Task) Variability of Practice | movement patterns, movement parameters |
| Blocked Practice Practice Schedule | 1. Monday: all kicks 2. Tuesday: all blocks 3. Wednesday: all punches |
| Random Practice Practice Schedule | 1. Monday: punch, punch, block, kick, punch 2. Tuesday: block, punch, punch kick, kick 3. Wednesday: block, kick kick, block |
| Serial Practice Practice Schedule | 1. Monday: kick, block punch 2. Tuesday: kick, block punch 3. Wednesday: kick, block punch |
| Contextual Interference Effect (CI) | Interference in performance (i.e not learning) resulting from in practice context (L⇒R) (Benefit learning, but worse for practice increased retention) |
| Contextual Interference Effect (CI | i. Low CI: Block Practice, Better practice performance, Less learning ii. Serial Practice iii. High CI: Random Practice, Worse Practice Performance, greater learning iv. Learning (not practice performance) benefits from high contextual interference. 1. Increased retention and transfer |
| Is the CI effect always present? Most Present | Using different patterns of coordination. a. Movements with different general motor program |
| Is the CI effect always present? Least Present | Using scaling of the same movement pattern (i.e increase in movement speed) a. Movements with the same general motor program 2. In less skilled performance a. Block practice=random practice |
| Theoretical Explanations of the CI Effect Elaboration Hypothesis Action Plan Reconstruction Hypothesis | a. Elaboration Hypothesis: Increased cognitive processing (strategies; compare and contrast) leads to enhanced memory representation b. Action Plan Reconstruction Hypothesis: Increased frequency of reconstructing an action plan during random practice; increased (implicitly) problem solving during practice. |
| Massed Practice | Rest between trials and/or sessions are very short |
| Distributed Practice | Rest between trial and/or sessions are relatively long. Which leads to better learning? |
| Massed vs Distributed...which leads to better learning? | i. If total work periods are the same and we are referring to the spacing of practice sessions distributed leads to better performance in practice and retention. 1. Increased fatigue in massed practice 2. Decreased cognitive processing/effort massed 3. Decreased opportunities for memory consolidation in massed ii. If we are referring to rest between trials (inter-trial interval) results differ depending on type of task 1. Discrete Skills: massed may be better in retention 2. Continuous Skills: distributed is better. |
| Organization Whole vs Part Practice | the relationships among the component parts |
| Complexity Whole vs Part Practice | the number of component parts of the skill, and the amount of information processing involved |
| Throwing a ball Examples Whole vs Part Practice | 1. Complexity: Low 2. Organization: High 3. Practice: Whole a. Hard to break up a throwing action into parts. b. Tennis |
| Writing (chaining activities) Examples Whole vs Part Practice | 1. Complexity: High 2. Organization: Low 3. Practice: Part |
| Fractionizing Decomposition of a skill: How do you break the skill into "parts"? | practice parts separately, put together when each part is learned. Ex: Guitar |
| Segmentation Decomposition of a skill: How do you break the skill into "parts"? | practice part A, then B, then AB, then C, then ABC = Progressive part or chaining. More serially ordered than Fractionizing. Ex: Breaststroke |
| Simplification Decomposition of a skill: How do you break the skill into "parts"? | a variation on whole practice this simple reduces difficulty of the entire skill. Ex: juggling scarves |
| Overlearning Quantity of Practice | a. practice which goes beyond the amount required to achieve task goals/criterion performance b. assists retention (although there are limits and other performance variables) c.Strengthens the general motor program (cognitive), stabilizes the movement pattern (dynamic) |
| deliberate practice | a. Not leisure! b. Tailored to the individual c. Best with a tutor/coach d. Often lots of reps e. Requires high motivation f. Erricson: 10,000 of deliberate practice reach expert status regardless of genetics |
| Observational Learning (OL) | the tendency in human behavior to observe others and adapt our own behavior as a result (also modeling, imitation, vicarious learning) |
| Increasing the Effectiveness of Demonstration | a.Skills involves acquisition of a new pattern of coordination b.Sufficient demonstration is provided before practicing the skill |
| New Patterns of Coordination | Learners perceive, minimize and become constrained by relative motion of the model |
| New Patterns of Coordination Absolute, Common, Relative | i. Absolute: motion of any separate component of a configuration ii. Common: motion common to all segments relative to the perceiver iii. Relative: motion of individual segments in a configuration relative to each other |
| Point-Light Displays New Patterns of Coordination | Little markers on arms and all you see are the dots. we can rapidly distinguish types of locomotion, gender, friends, emotion in dance, quality affordances, perceived weight |
| Timing of Demonstration | Increased retention when sufficient demonstration is provided prior to practice sessions |
| Mirror Neurons Imitation: Neural Underpinnings | A cluster of neurons in broca's area fire during both observation and subsequent execution of movements. |
| Task-Intrinsic Feedback | Sensory feedback which is naturally available in performance of a skill |
| Augmented Feedback | Information pertaining to performance which is added by an external force. |
| Knowledge of Results (KR) Augmented Feedback | Externally presented information about the outcome of the action usually in relation to the task goal i.Example: dart throwing: the outcome, the score |
| Knowledge of Performance (KP) Augmented Feedback | information about the characteristics of the movement performed usually in relations to a task goal i. Example: video of the skill, released the dart too late, flicking of wrist. |
| What is the role KR and KP? | i. To facilitate achievement of task goals ii. To motivate the learner (self efficacy goals) |
| Are KR and KP always effective? | i. Effectiveness varies how they are used ii. Less effective if task-Intrinsic feedback is already robust 1. Vision, proprioception iii. Can hinder skill learning if... 1. Presented concurrently with performance 2. Presented after each practice trial 3. There is a conflict between augmented and task intrinsic feedback |
| What message should the feedback convey? ⇒ | i.Error Detection → More effective for learning → actively engages the learner in the cognitive processes of error detection/correction? ii.Positive Reinforcement → Motivates the learner |
| Which is most often used? KP vs KR | KP |
| Task dependency Which is most often used? KP vs KR | 1. Is there a clear task outcome? 2. Is technique important to task outcomes? 3. Is intrinsic KR present? |
| BEWARE of reports suggesting KP vs KR | KR (usually easier to give)is better than KP in aiding skill learning, and the learner's characteristics. 1. Where the learner is, beginner learners need more KR, less details |
| In what context is KR effectively used? KP vs KR | i. To confirms a learner's assessment of task intrinsic feedback 1. Someone who has lost their vestibular system. ii. To determine outcome information when task intrinsic feedback is not available iii. To motivate continuing practice iv. To promote discover learning by trail and error. v. Example: 1. Blindfolded line drawing criterion 2. Some (correct) KR is better than |
| In what context is KP effectively used? KP vs KR | i. When skills require specific technique ii. When coordination must be improved/adjusted iii. When KR has been made redundant by task-intrinsic feedback...reason KP>KR |
| Types of KP | a.Verbal: descriptive and prescriptive KP statements, (assessment) (correction) b.Video/Split Screen: Popular technique, mixed effectiveness, new-mixed c.Kinematic and PLD: Graphs can powerfully illustrate movement pattern, PLD removes distracting structure d.Biofeedback: KP of physiological processes e.g EMG |
| Time of Augmented Feedback | When should augmented feedback be given? a. Terminal (at the end) (almost always effective) versus concurrent (during performance) → |
| Augmented Feedback is most effective when... | 1. Task-intrinsic feedback is low 2. Learner has poor reference or correctness 3. Learner is unsure what to do |
| KR Delay Interval | time between end of trial and provision of KR |
| Length of KR Delay | assumption that KR should be provided immediately is not upheld. But there is a minimum delay that must occur. a. Lever movement to match criterion time b. Instantaneous feedback resulted poorer performance than delayed feedback (3.2s) |
| Activity during the KR delay | does activity during the delay between end of performance and delivery of feedback affect learning SEE SLIDE a. Negative effect if learner focuses on other's performance or learns secondary task b. Positive Effect in person engages in... i. Subjective performance evaluation strategy ii. Estimation of specific characteristics of movement related component of action iii. Why? |
| Post-KR Interval | time from end of KR to start of the next trial. |
| Length of Post Interval | a. Learners develop plan of action for next trial-promotes problems solving (important in transfer) b. Evidence suggests a minimum time again (~1 second) c. Post KR delay of 5-60 seconds appears to be beneficial. |
| Effects of Activity in the post KR interval | a. Similar to KR delay interval, most activities here have no effect b. Other cognitive activity hinders learning (math problems, behavioral distractions) |
| Frequency of Augmented Feedback | a. Previous thinking was that it should be given on every trial, since performance suffered on trials without KR. b. Not we know that 100% of the time is NOT optimal c. Why?? The guidance hypothesis? |
| Fading Schedule of Feedbacks | a. Decreases frequency of feedback through practice to "wean" learner from dependency. i. Pattern matching with lever. b. No differences in acquisitions -but fading schedule is better in retention. |
| Bandwidths in Augmented Feedback | a. A bandwidth is a range or tolerance limit or performance b. For feedback: how great the amount of error should be before feedback is given. c. Bandwidth feedback is feedback given within a pre-defined range error. |
| Ways to Reduce Frequency of Feedback | a. Performance based bandwidths b. Self-Selected Frequency i. Akin to asking for help when needed ii. Encourages active participation c. Summary Feedback i. Feedback is given after a certain number of trials ii. Gives overall knowledge of progress, but diminishes dependency on feedback as information lacks specificity. |
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