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geography the study of the distribution and interaction of physical and human features on the earth place "what is it like?" physical features and cultural characteristics of a location - such as climate, landforms, and vegetation location "where is it?" region "how are places similar or different?" area of the earth's surface with similar characteristics, usually have more than one characteristic movement "how do people, goods, and ideas move from one location to another?" human environment interaction "how do people relate to their physical world?" absolute location the exact place on earth where a geographic feature is found relative location describes a place in relation to other places around it hemisphere each half of the globe equator the imaginary line that encircles the globe, dividing the earth into northern and southern halves prime meridian the imaginary line at zero meridian used to measure longitude east to west, and dividing the earth's east and west halves; also called the Greenwich Meridian because it passes through Greenwich, England latitude a set of imaginary lines that run parallel to the equator and that are used in locating places north or south; the equator is labeled the zero-degree line for latitude linear distance how far across the earth a person, idea, or product travels; can be affected by physical geography by forcing a shift in a route to avoid impassable land or water time distance the amount of time it takes for a person, idea, or product to travel; shortened by modern inventions psychological distance refers to the way people view distance globe a 3D representation of the earth map a 2D graphic representation of selected parts of the earth's surface cartographer mapmaker map projection a way of mapping the earth's surface that reduces distortion caused by converting 3D into 2D topographic map a general reference map; a representation of natural and man made features on the earth thematic map emphasize specific kinds of info, such as climate or population density compass rose shows you the directions (north, south, east, west) on the map legend lists and explains the symbols and use of color on the map scale many details = large scale few details = small scale continent landmasses above water on earth solar system consists of the sun and eight known planets, and other celestial bodies that orbit the sun core the earth's center, made up of iron and nickel, the inner core is solid, outer core is liquid mantle a rock layer about 1800 miles thick that is between crust and core magma molten rock material formed when solid rock in the mantle or crust melts crust thin rock layer making up earth's surface atmosphere layers of gases immediately surrounding the earth lithosphere solid rock portion of the earth's surface hydrosphere waters comprising the earth's surface, including oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, and vapor in the atmosphere biosphere all the parts of the earth where plants and animals live, including atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere continental drift hypothesis that all continents were once joined into super-continent that split apart over millions of years Pangaea super-continent on earth millions of years ago hydrologic cycle the continuous circulation of water between the atmosphere, the oceans, and the earth, water evaporates from oceans, water is in atmosphere, vapor cools and falls as precipitation drainage basin an area drained by a major river and its tributaries landforms naturally formed features on the surface of the earth continental shelf the earth's surface from the edge of a continent to the deep part of the ocean relief the difference in elevation of a landform from its lowest point to its highest point topography the combination of the surface shape and composition of the landforms and their distribution in a region tectonic plate enormous moving pieces of the earth's lithosphere fault fracture in the earth's crust earthquake violent movement of the earth seismograph device that measures the size of the waves created by an earthquake epicenter the point directly above the focus on the earth's surface richter scale uses info collected by seismographs to determine the relative strength of an earthquake tsunami a giant wave in the ocean volcano a natural event, formed when magma, gases, and water from the lower part of the crust or mantle collect in underground chambers and eventually erupt and pour out of cracks in the earth's surface lava magma that has reached the earth's surface ring of fire chain of volcanoes that lines the Pacific Rim weathering physical and chemical processes that change the characteristics of rock on or near the earth's surface, occurring slowly over many years sediment small pieces of rock produced by weathering processes mechanical weathering natural processes that break rock into smaller pieces chemical weathering a process that changes rock into a new substance through interactions among elements in the air or water and the minerals in the rock erosion the result of weathering on matter, created by the action of wind, water, ice, or gravity delta a fan-like landform made of deposited sediment, left by a river that slows as it enters the ocean loess wind-blown silt and clay sediment that produces very fertile soil glacier a large, long-lasting mass of ice that moves because of gravity solstice either of two times a year when the sun's rays shine directly overhead at noon at the furthest points north or south, and that mark the beginning of summer and winter equinox each of the two days a year when day and night are equal in length; marks the beginning of spring and autumn weather condition of the atmosphere at a particular location and time climate typical weather conditions at a particular location as observed over time precipitation falling water droplets in the form of rain, sleet, snow, or hail hurricane a storm that forms over warm, tropical ocean waters typhoon a tropical storm, like a hurricane, that occurs in the Western Pacific tornado a powerful funnel-shaped column of spiraling air blizzard a heavy snowstorm with winds of more than 35 mph and reduced visibility of less than one-fourth of a mile drought a long period without rain or with very minimal rainfall el nino a water pattern created by the warming of the waters off the west coast of south America, which pushes warm water and heavy rains toward the Americans and produces drought conditions in Australia and Asia greenhouse effect layer of gases released by burning of coal and petroleum traps come solar energy, causing higher temps tundra flat, treeless lands forming a ring around the Arctic Ocean permafrost frozen subsoil ecosystem an interdependent community of plants and animals deciduous broadleaf trees coniferous needleleaf trees rainforest located in the tropical zone and is covered with heavy concentration of broadleaf trees biome ecosystem of a region culture total of knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors shared by and passed on by the members of a specific group society a group that shares a geographic region, a sense of identity, and a culture ethnic group a group that shares a language, customs, and a common heritage innovation taking existing technology and resources and creating something new to meet a need diffusion spread of ideas, inventions, or patterns of behavior cultural hearth site of innovation from which basic ideas, materials, and technology diffuse to many cultures acculturation occurs when a society changes because it accepts or adapts an innovation dialect changes in speech patterns related to class, region, or other cultural changes religion a belief in a supernatural power or powers that are regarded as the creators and maintainers of the universe monotheistic belief in one god polytheistic belief in many gods animistic belief in divine forces of nature Judaism oldest monotheistic religion concentrated in Israel long tradition of faith and culture tied tightly together holy book - Torah religious center - Jerusalem Christianity largest of all religions monotheistic New Testament based on teachings of Jesus Christ holy book - Bible three major divisions - Roman Catholic, Protestant, Eastern Orthodox Buddhism offshoot of Hinduism religious center - India founder - Siddharta Gautama rejects caste system reach enlightened spiritual state called nirvana several branches - Theravada, Mahayana, Lamaism, Zen Islam originated in southwest Asia prophet Muhammad followers - Muslims monotheistic god - Allah book - Qur'an divisions - Sunni, Shiite Hinduism originated in India polytheistic divine spirit - Brahman - divided into many gods caste system push factors factors that are negative or discourage someone from moving to a place pull factors factors that are positive or make people want to live somewhere state an independent society that occupies a specific territory and has full control of internal and external affairs nation refers to a group of people with a common culture living in a territory and having a strong sense of unity nation-state when a nation and state occupy the same territory democracy citizens hold political power monarchy a ruling family holds political power dictatorship an individual or small group holds political parties communism political and economic power held by central government landlocked having no outlet to the sea urban geography study of how people use space in cities city area of large population and centers of business and culture suburb built-up areas touching cities or other suburbs metropolitan area large cities and nearby suburbs and towns urbanization a dramatic rise in the number of cities in the last 200 years economy production and exchange of goods and services among a group of people natural resources all materials on or in earth infrastructure basic facilities, services, and machinery needed for a community to function Appalachian Mountains extend 1600 miles from Newfoundland to Alabama; include the Green, Catskill, Blue Ridge, and Smokey Mountain chains, more than 400 million years old, peaks are eroded and rounded Great Plains large, mostly treeless area between Rocky Mountains and Mississippi river Canadian Shield large, mostly treeless, flat area around Hudson Bay Rocky Mountains extend 3000 miles from Alaska to New Mexico; 80 million years old; not eroded, with tall, rugged peaks Great Lakes some of the world's largest lakes, formed by glaciers, major shipping route utilizing locks prevailing westerlies winds that blow from west to east across middle latitudes Everglades huge swampland covering 4000 square miles nomad people who move from place to place Beringia land bridge that once connected Siberia and Alaska St. Lawrence Seaway North America's most important deep water ship route; completed in the 1950s as a joint project between the United States and Canada; connects Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean by the St. Lawrence River lock section of a waterway with closed gates where water levels are raised or lowered Columbian Exchange movement of plants, animals, and diseases between the Eastern and Western hemispheres during the age of exploration Louisiana Purchase territory between Mississippi river and Rocky Mountains; purchased from France in 1803; doubled the United States' size frontier free, open land available for settlement export goods sold to another country free enterprise an economic system in which private individuals own most of the resources, technology, and businesses, and can operate them for profit with little government control New England Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut megalopolis a region in which several large cities and surrounding areas grow together the Midwest subregion that contains 12 north-central states in the United States; vast, largely flat plains; Great Lakes, Mississippi River; breadbasket the South subregion covering one-fourth of the United States' land area; contains more than one-third of the population; 16 states, 11 of which made up the Confederacy the West subregion containing 13 states; stretches from Great Plains to Pacific; covers one-half of the land but one-fifth of the population; people settle where climate and landforms are favorable prime minister major leader of Parliament and head of government confederation a political union terrorism use or threat of use of violence for the purpose of causing fear for political or social ends global network worldwide interconnected group coalition an alliance biological weapon bacteria and viruses that can be used to harm or kill people, animals, or plants urban sprawl when poorly planned developments spread a city's population over a wider and wider geographical area sustainable community communities where residents could live or work Andes Mountains part of a chain of mountain ranges that run through western portions of America; these are located in Latin America Amazon River flows about 4000 miles from west to east emptying into Atlantic Ocean; fed by over 1000 tributaries; carries more water to ocean than any other river in the world slash and burn cutting trees, brush, and grasses and burning the debris to clear the field terraced farming step-like horizontal fields into hillsides and slopes, allowing steep land to be cultivated for crops Tenochtitlan Aztec capital, present-day Mexico City mestizo mixed Spanish and Native American heritage NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement Panama Canal a ship canal cut through Panama connecting the Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean informal economy takes place outside official channels without benefits or protection for workers reggae developed in Jamaica in the 1960s; mostly about social problems and religion; pioneer Bob Marley Inca a member of the Quechen peoples of South America who built a civilization in the Andes Mountains in the 15th and 16th centuries Carnival most colorful feast day in Brazil; people in costumes ride on floats through the streets deforestation clearing forests global warming the buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, preventing heat from escaping into space and causing rising temperatures and shifting weather patterns oligarchy a government run by a few persons or a small group fjord steep u-shaped valleys that connect to the sea and are filled with sea water after the glaciers melt; located in Norway; provide great harbors for fishing upland hill or very low mountain that may contain mesas and high plateaus; some are eroded remains of ancient mountain ranges; separate groups of people; make movement difficult; affect climate peat partially decayed plant matter found in bogs; cut from beds and burned for energy in Ireland North Atlantic Drift a current of warm water from the tropic; flows near Europe's west coast; prevailing westerlies pick up warmth from this sirocco hot, steady wind that blows from North Africa across Mediterranean into southern Europe; most Mediterranean countries experience it mistral cold, dry wind form the north; in winter, Mediterranean coast of France receives this dike earthen bank; holds back the North Sea in the Netherlands; giant waves ripped through them in 1953; thousands of buildings were destroyed; Netherlands are prone to floods because much or the land is below sea level polder land reclaimed by diking and draining seaworks structures that are used to control the sea's destructive impact on human life; Dutch constructed; include dikes and terpen terpen high earthen platforms that provide places to go for safety during floods and high tides