BIO 2: Genes

Terms	Definitions
gene	Series of DNA nucelotides that codes for the production of a single polypeptide, mRNA, rRNA, or tRNA.
euchromatin	Eukaryotic genes that are actively being transcribed are found in ____.
26, 38	There are __ to __ genes found in the human genome.
Central Dogma of genes	DNA -> RNA -> Protein: What is this theory called?
adenine, cytosine	The purines of DNA?
guanosine, thymine	The pyrimidines of DNA?
2	Purines are ___-ringed structures
1	Pyrimidines are ___-ringed structures.
phosphodiester bond, sugar-phosphate backbone	Each nucleotide is bound by a ___ between the 3rd carbon of a deoxyribose and a 5th carbon on the other. This creates the ___.
base pairing	What the linking between two nitrogenous bases on opposite complementary DNA or certain types of RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds is called.
complementary strand	Strands that match so that they can bind to make DNA.
adenine, thymine	2 hydrogen bonds between them.
cytosine, guanine	3 hydrogen bonds between them.
semi-conservative	DNA replication is ____ because it has an old strand and a newly-crafted strand on it.
middle	DNA synthesizing starts in the ___ of a strand.
leading, lagging	DNA has these two strands when being synthesized
DNA polymerase	An enzyme that helps` catalyze in the polymerization of deoxyribonucleotides into a DNA strand. Requires an RNA polymerase to get started.
Okazaki fragment	Short molecules of single-stranded DNA that are formed on the lagging strand during DNA replication.
DNA helicase	Unwinds the DNA.
deoxy	Means it has fewer oxygens somewhere.
DNA ligase	Moves along the lagging strand and and ties the Okazaki fragments together.
RNA primer	DNA polymerase requires a ____ to get started.
First	__ step of DNA replication: Helicase unwinds double helix
second	__ step of DNA replication: RNA polymerase builds a primer.
third	__ step of DNA replication: DNA polymerase asembles the leading and lagging strands.
fourth	__ step of DNA replication: The primers are removed.
fifth	__ step of DNA replication: Okazaki fragments are joined.
telomere	Repeated nucleotide units that protect the chromosomes from being eroded through repeated rounds of replication.
telomerase	It catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres.
ribose	RNA is made from ___.
1	RNA has how many strands?
replication	DNA is produced by ___.
transcription	RNA is produced by ____.
mRNA, rRna, tRNA	The three types of RNA?
messenger RNA	Delivers the DNA code for amino acids to the cytosol where the proteins are made.
ribosomal RNA	This combines with proteins to make ribosomes.
ribosome	These complexes direct the synthesis of DNA.
transfer RNA	Collects amino acids in the cytosol and transfers them to ribosomes so that the ribosomes can make proteins.
nucleolus	Where rRNA is made.
ribonucleic acid	RNA is an abbreviation for?
transcription	Initiation, elongation, termination are the processes that make what?
transcription	The process where RNA is made from a DNA template.
first	___ step of transcription: initiation
second	___ step of transcription: elongation
third	___ step of transcription: termination
RNA polymerase	Is necessary for constructing RNA chains using DNA genes as templates.
promoter	Sequence of DNA nucleotides that designates a beginning point for transcription.
initiation	In ____, RNA polymerase scands the DNA molecule for the promoter.
elongation	In ____, RNA polymerase recognizes the promoter and transcribes the RNA.
termination	In ___, a termination sequence and special proteins help to dissociate RNA polymerase from DNA.
antisense strand (-)	The strand of dna which is not used during transcription to make mRNA. (Template strand)
sense strand (+)	The strand of dNA which is used during transcription to make mRNA. (Coding strand)
activator	Activate the activity of RNA polymerase.
repressor	Stop the activity of RNA polymerase.
prokaryotes	In (eukaryotes/prokaryotes), a change in environment causes a change in genes.
polycistronic	Prokaryotes have ____ mRNA which has many genes in a single transcript.
monocistronic	Eukaryotes have ____ mRNA which has one gene in a single transcript.
operon	A group of genes or a segment of DNA that functions as a single transcription unit. It is comprised of an operator, a promoter, and one or more structural genes that are transcribed into one polycistronic mRNA.
lac operon	Group of adjacent and coordinately controlled genes concerned with the metabolism of lactose in E. Coli.
primary transcript	RNA transcript immediately after transcription in the nucleus, before rNA splicing or polyadenylation to form the mature mRNA.
5' cap	This cap is the attachment site during protein synthesis.
poly A tail	The 3' cap has a ___ which has only adenine bases and protects mRNA from degeneration.
polyadenylation	_____ is the addition of a poly(A) tail to an RNA molecule.
intron	Non-coding, intervening sequences of dna that are transcribed, but are removed from within the primary gene transcript and rapidly degraded during maturation of messenger rna.
exon	The protein-coding region in the DNA.
snRNP (small nuclear ribonucleoprotein)	They join together with proteins to make a spliceosome that loop the exons together so that they can be removed.
introns	Are there more introns or exons?
denature DNA	To ____ means to separate the two strands of DNA's double helix.
G/C	G/C or A/T bands have a higher melting point.
nucelic acid hybridization	This is why you can take some known DNA and unknown DNA and see if they go together to see if they are the same thing.
methylation	Bacteria protect their own DNA with this process, which involves adding -CH3.
restriction enzymes	An enzyme that catalyzes the cleavage of DNA at restriction sites, producing small fragments used for gene splicing in recombinant DNA technology and for chromosome mapping.
palindromic	Can be read the same way either frontwards or backwards.
recombinant DNA	Spliced DNA formed from two or more different sources that have been cleaved by restriction enzymes and joined by ligases.
vector	An organism or vehicle that transmits a piece of genetic material into a host.
plasmid	An organism or vehicle that transmits the causative agent or disease-causing organism from the reservoir to the host.
clone	Genetically identical organism copies.
library	A collection of dna molecules, derived from restriction fragments that have been cloned in vectors, that includes all or part of the genetic material of an organism.
yes	Should libraries be screened for appropriate clones?
lacZ	Some bacteria don't have vectors and some vectors don't have the needed DNA fragment, so include ____ and an antibiotic resistant gene to search for the right bacteria.
probe	A general term for a piece of DNA or RNA corresponding to a gene or sequence of interest, that has been labelled either radioactively or with some other detectable molecule.
cDNA	_____ is reverse transcribed DNA. Lacks introns.
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)	The first practical system for in vitro amplification of DNA and as such one of the most important recent developments in molecular biology.
anneal	The pairing of complementary dna or rna sequences, via hydrogenbonding, to form a double-stranded molecule. Mostoften used to describe the binding of a short primer or probe.`
southern blot	A technique used for searching for a specific dNA fragment. 1. separate DNA fragments by gel electrophoresis 2. Change pH of gel to basic, thus allowing disruption of H-bonds 3. blot gel with nitrocellulose paper 4. Heat paper so as to fix dNA fragments 5. probe with labelled messenger RNA or cDNA 6. wash complementary mRNA/cDNA fragments will have hybridised.
northern blot	Just like southern blot, but looks for RNA fragments.
RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphisms)	Used to ID criminals in court cases, based on finding an individual's specific restriction sites in their DNA.
genetic code	Turns DNA nucleotide sequences into amino acid sequences, which later becomes a protein.
degenerative	When more than one series of three nucelotides can code for any amino acid.
unambiguous	When only one code can code for one amino acid.
almost universal	The genetic code is ____, which means almost all living things use the same codes for the same proteins.
codon	Three consecutive nucleotides on a strand of mRNA.
UAA, UGA, UAG	The stop codons.
AUG	The start codon, also codes for amino acid methionine.
20^100	A polypeptide contains 100 amino acids. How many possible amino acid sequences are there for this polypeptide?
3 nucleotide bases	Need what to make an amino acid?
translation	The process of protein synthesis directed by mRNA.
mRNA	Thsi carries the genetic code from the nucleus to the cytosol in the form of codons.
anticodon	A sequence of three adjacent nucleotides located on one end of transfer RNA. It binds to the complementary coding triplet of nucleotides in messenger RNA during translation phase of protein synthesis.
large subunit, small subunit	Things that the ribosome are made of, besides tRNA and proteins.
Svedberg units (S)	The ribosome and its subunits are measured in terms of sedimentation coefficients given in ___.
sedimentation coefficient	Gives the speed of a particle in a centrifuge and is proportional to mass, and related to shape and density.
70	Prokaryotic ribosomes are size __S.
80	Eukaryotic ribosomes are size __S.
no	Sediment coefficients don't add up like normal numbers.
P-site (peptidyl)	X
E-site	Exit site during translation.
A-site	X
translocation	When one piece of random DNA is inserted into another.
deletion	When a portion breaks off during cross-over, homologous recombination, or if it breaks off randomly.
duplication	When a spare fragment breaks off and ends up as an extra in another piece of DNA.
inversion	When the orientation of a piece of genetic code is put on backwards.
transposable elements (transposons)	They can remove themselves from a chromosome and place themselves somewhere else.
nonsense mutation	When a cell makes a stop codon by accident with a mistake insertion or deletion.
forward mutation	Mutation that changes the organism even more.
backward mutation	Fixes the mutation, reverting the area back to normal.
wild type	Genetic code in its original, unaltered form.
tumor	Mass of cancer cells.
oncogenes	Genes that cause cancer.
proto-oncogenes	Genes that stimulate growth.
carcinogens	Mutagens that cause cancer.
frameshift mutation	Mutation with 3 nucleotides changed.
histone	Proteins that dna tightly coils around to form chromosomes.
nucleosome	Contains eight histone molecules, and wrap into coils called solenoids.
chromatin	A complex of nucleic acids (e.g. DNA or RNA) and proteins (histones), which condenses to form a chromosome during cell division.
nucleus, mitochondria	Where is DNA found in inside of animals? (Think of cells.)
chromosome	A structure within the cell that bears the genetic material as a threadlike linear strand of DNA bonded to various proteins in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, or as a circular strand of DNA (or RNA in some viruses) in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes and in the mitochondrion and chloroplast of certain eukaryotes.
trait	A qualitative characteristic. It is an attribute of phenotype, not of genotype.
homologue	A chromosome that is similar in physical attributes and genetic information to another chromosome with which it pairs during meiosis. A member of homologous chromosome.
diploid	A cell or an organism consisting of two sets of chromosomes: usually, one set from the mother and another set from the father. In a diploid state the haploid number is doubled, thus, this condition is also known as 2n.
haploid	A cell or an organism having half of the number of chromosomes in somatic cells.
life cycle of a cell	G1, S, G2, M, C.
G1 stage	The growth phase in the life cycle of a cell.
G1 stage	Usually the longest stage, its when the cell grows.
G0 stage	A nongrowing stage that many cells in the body stay in.
S stage	The cell cycle devotes itself to replicating DNA here. It now has two sister chromatids.
chromatid	The two strands joined together by a single centromere, formed from the duplication of the chromosome during the early stages of cell division and then separate to become individual chromosomes during the late stages of cell division.
G2 stage	When the cell prepares to divide in the cell life cycle.
mitosis	Nuclear division without genetic change.
stages of mitosis	Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
prophase	Mitosis stage: Condensation of chromatin into chromosomes. Centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell and the spindle apparatus begins to form.
centriole	A self-replicating, small, fibrous, cylindrical-shaped organelle, typically located in the cytoplasm near the nucleus in cells of most animals. It is involved in the process of nuclear division.
spindle apparatus	Any of a network of filaments that collectively form a mitotic spindle (in mitosis) and meiotic spindle (in meiosis). It is chiefly involved in moving and segregating the chromosomes during nuclear division.
aster	A star-shaped cluster of microtubules radiating from the edges of a cell, and seen immediately before and during mitosis of an animal cell.
centromere	The constricted region joining the two sister chromatids that make up an X-shaped chromosome.
kinetochore	A specialized condensed region of each chromosome that appears during mitosis where the chromatids are held together to form an X shape.
metaphase	Mitosis stage: Chromosomes align along the equator of the cell.
anaphase	When sister chromatids split at their attaching centromeres and move towards opposite ends of the cells.
telophase	The cell separates.
cytokinesis	The division of the cytoplasm and the plasma membrane following the division of the nucleus resulting into two cells, each having its own nucleus and cytoplasm surrounded by a plasma membrane.
disjunction	The normal separation or moving apart of chromosomes toward opposite poles of the cell during cell division.
meiosis	A double nuclear division that results in four haploid gametes.
gametes	A mature haploid male or female germ cell that is able to unite with another of the opposite sex in sexual reproduction to form a zygote.
germ cell	The reproductive cells in multicellular organisms.
spermatogonium	An undifferentiated male germ cell in the male gonads that divides mitotically, and later develops into spermatocyte.
oogonium	An immature female reproductive cell that gives rise to primary oocytes by mitosis.
spermatocyte	A male gametocyte derived from a spermatogonium, and gives rise to haploid spermatids through meiosis.
oocyte	A female gametocyte.
2	Meiosis has how many rounds of division?
prophase I	Meiosis stage: Homologous chromosomes like up. Crossing over occurs. Has four total chromosomes.
crossing over	A process occurring during meiosis wherein two chromosomes pair up and exchange segments of their genetic material.
genetic recombination	The process of forming new allelic combination in offspring by exchanges between genetic materials (as exchange of DNA sequences between DNA molecules).
tetrad	A group of four closely associated chromatids of a homologous pair.
chiasma	ChiasmaThe point of contact between paired chromatids during meiosis, resulting in a cross-shaped configuration and representing the cytological manifestation of crossing over like the letter X.
linked	Genes that are close together and are more likely to be inherited together.
alleles	One member of a pair (or any of the series) of genes occupying a specific spot on a chromosome (called locus) that controls the same trait.
metaphase I	Meiosis: Homologues stay attached, start to move to center to line up like an equator.
anaphase I	Meiosis: Separates homologues from their partners.
telophase I	Meiosis: The cell splits apart.
reduction division	Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms.
polar body	The cell that results from the asymmetric division of an oocyte.
II	Is it Meiosis I or II that looks like mitosis?
nondisjunction	The failure of homologous chromosomes to segregate or to separate during and after meiosis.

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BIO 2: Genes

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