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Which organ system performs the following three functions? 1) receives sensory input from internal & external environments; 2) integrates the input; 3) responds to stimuli nervous system The nervous system can be split into which two parts? (Both have 3 letter abbreviations) CNS, PNS The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of what two components? brain, spinal cord The nerves and neurons that reside outside of the CNS (extending to & from the CNS), together make up what part of the nervous system? peripheral nervous system The peripheral nervous system (PNS) can be further split up into which two divisions? somatic nervous system, autonomic nervous system Another name for the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is what? visceral nervous system The somatic nervous system consists of what two types of nerves? cranial, spinal How many pairs of cranial nerves are there? 12 How many pairs of spinal nerves are there? 31 The somatic nervous system consists of ____ pairs of cranial nerves and ____ pairs of spinal nerves. 12, 31 The autonomic nervous system (ANS) can be further split up into which two divisions? sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system The ____ ____ ____ is the part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that controls homeostasis, by controlling cardiovascular, digestive, and respiratory functions, as well as a number of other (mostly involuntary) functions, such as salivation and erection. autonomic nervous system The regulation of an internal environment to maintain a stable, constant condition is called what? homeostasis Functions such as salivation, perspiration, pupil diameter, micturition (urine discharge), and erection are controlled by what component of the PNS? autonomic nervous system ____ neurons carry nerve impulses away from the CNS (i.e. fibers run away from brain). Efferent ____ neurons carry nerve impulses toward the CNS (i.e. fibers run toward brain). Afferent The autonomic nervous system's major activity is ____ ____. maintaining homeostasis The autonomic nervous system prepares the body to respond to threatening situations by providing the ____ or ____ response. fight, flight Clusters of somata and dendritic structures are called what? ganglia The sympathetic nervous system is also known as the ____ division of the ANS. thoracicolumbar The parasympathetic nervous system is also known as the ____ division of the ANS. craniosacral Afferent neurons are otherwise known as ____ neurons, because they carry information from sensory receptors toward the CNS. sensory Efferent neurons are otherwise known as ____ neurons, because they carry information away from the CNS to muscles and glands. motor Neurons can be classified into how many types based on the direction in which they send information? 3 What type of neuron transfers information between sensory and motor neurons? interneuron Most interneurons are located in what part of the nervous system? central nervous system The ____ ____ ____ controls arousal mechanisms, while the ____ ____ ____ controls recuperation mechanisms after arousal. sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system Lie detector tests operate based on the premise that lying activates the ____ ____ ____. (That is, lying results in arousal.) sympathetic nervous system Voluntary movements of striated muscle are controlled by what part of the peripheral nervous system? somatic nervous system The spine consists of an inner core of ____ matter, and an outer covering of ____ matter. gray, white Gray matter consists primarily of masses of what two components? cell bodies, dendrites White matter consists of bundles of what component? axons The sympathetic nervous system and the ____ ____ ____ both operate simultaneously to control involuntary functions of the body. (I.e. both are operating continuously, all the time, although one may dominate over the other during a particular situation/time). parasympathetic nervous system After an enjoyable meal with friends, while relaxing in front of the TV, which component of the autonomic nervous system is probably dominating? parasympathetic nervous system When you're late for an important appointment and speeding down the street, which component of the autonomic nervous system is probably dominating? sympathetic nervous system The nerves of the ____ ____ ____ send impulses to increase blood pressure, and speed up rate of heart beat. sympathetic nervous system The nerves of the ____ ____ ____ send impulses to decrease blood pressure, and slow down rate of heart beat. parasympathetic nervous system The nerves of the ____ ____ ____ send impulses to increase blood sugar concentration. sympathetic nervous system The nerves of the ____ ____ ____ send impulses to stimulate digestion. parasympathetic nervous system The nerves of the ____ ____ ____ send impulses to re-route blood flow to skeletal muscles, so that they receive the amount of blood required for maximum effort. sympathetic nervous system The effector of the somatic nervous system is voluntary muscle, otherwise known as what? skeletal muscle The effectors of the autonomic nervous system include glands, and these two types of muscle. smooth, cardiac Damage to this part of the PNS results in paralysis and muscle atrophy. somatic nervous system Damage to this part of the PNS result in glands and muscles (smooth, cardiac) not being able to respond quickly to changing needs of the body. (Although they still remain functional!) autonomic nervous system ____ matter do not contain dendrites, which are only found in ____ matter (along with neuronal cell bodies and shorter axons). White, gray Generally, ____ matter is mainly responsible for information processing, while ____ matter is mainly responsible for information transmission. gray, white The bulk of the deep parts of the brain and the superficial parts of the spinal cord consists of ____ matter. white White matter is white because of ____ sheaths, while gray matter is gray because of neuronal ____ ____ and capillary blood vessels which run through it. myelin, cell bodies In the spinal cord, the butterfly-shaped ____ matter is inside, while ____ matter is outside; however, in the brain (for mammals), this pattern is reversed. gray, white In the human brain, ____ matter is outside, while the bulk of the inside consists of ____ matter. (In the brains of lower vertebrates such as amphibians and fishes, the opposite is true!) gray, white The CNS is composed of what two components? (List the component that is located on the outside of the mammalian brain first). gray, white The tough connective tissues covering both the brain and spinal cord are known as what? meninges The three components of the meninges are the ____ ____, the ____, and the ____ ____. (List from outside in). dura mater, arachnoid, pia mater Cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) fills the region between which two layers of the meninges? (List from outside in). arachnoid, pia mater The ____ ____ secretes cerebral spinal fluid (CSF), which flows uninterrupted throughout the CNS through the ____ ____ of the spinal cord, and through an interconnected system of four ____ in the brain. choroid plexus, cerebrospinal canal, ventricles The 31 pairs of spinal nerves are "mixed nerves" because each contains both ____ and ____ axons, the former passing into the dorsal root ganglion, and the latter passing into the ventral roots. sensory, motor Aside from connecting the PNS to the brain, the spinal cord also acts as a minor coordinating center for simple reflexes, such as the ____ ____ (when you touch a hot object). withdrawal reflex Interneurons are grouped together in ____ ____. spinal tracts List the separate parts of the brain (forebrain, hindbrain, midbrain) in evolutionary order, beginning with the part which first developed. hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain What component of the hindbrain controls breathing, heart beat, blood pressure, reflex arcs, and vomiting? medulla oblongata What component of the hindbrain controls muscle coordination, balance, and posture? cerebellum The size of this hindbrain structure is related to amount of muscular activity. cerebellum In the hindbrain, the ____ ____ is rostral to the spinal cord, and caudal to the ____, which is in turn ventral to the cerebellum. medulla oblongata, pons This poorly differentiated area of the brainstem (centered roughly in the pons) is considered the oldest part of the brain! (I.e. the first part of the brain to develop, in terms of evolutionary order). reticular formation The brainstem consists of the midbrain, the base of the reticular formation, and these two hindbrain structures. (List from rostral to caudal). pons, medulla oblongata Extroverted people have a less easily stimulated ____ ____, resulting in a greater need to seek out external activity/stimulation in order to maintain brain activity. reticular formation This structure spans across the hindbrain and the midbrain, and controls alertness, sleep, thirst/hunger, as well as a number of other stereotypical actions (such as walking, urination/defecation, sex, etc.) reticular formation This area of the midbrain controls vision and hearing. tectum This area of the midbrain controls sleep, arousal, and eye movements. tegmentum People with chronic fatigue syndrome have been shown to have abnormal activity (according to some imaging studies) in this area of the brainstem. reticular formation The term ____ means a "netlike structure", which is what the structure initially appeared to be. reticular Modern anatomical texts and neuroscience articles no longer refers to this poorly differentiated brainstem structure as a whole, except when speaking in general terms. reticular formation The midbrain is also known as what? mesencephalon The hindbrain is also known as what? rhombencephalon The forebrain is also known as what? prosencephalon Aside from portions of the reticular formation, and the optic lobes, the midbrain can be divided into two general parts, the dorsal ____, and the ventral ____ tectum, tegmentum This portion of the midbrain contains the superior colliculus and the inferior colliculus. tectum This structure, located within the tectum of the midbrain, is involved in the generation of saccadic eye movements and hand-eye coordination. superior colliculus This structure, located within the tectum of the midbrain, is involved in integration and processing of auditory information. inferior colliculus The two superior colliculi and the two inferior colliculi are known collectively as the ____ ____, which serve as reflex centers for vision and hearing. corpora quadrigemina This portion of the midbrain contains the red nucleus, the substantia nigra, and the ventral tegmental area. tegmentum This structure, located within the tegmentum of the midbrain, is involved in movement coordination (primarily shoulder & upper-arm muscles in humans). red nucleus Latin for "black substance", the ____ ____, a structure located within the tegmentum of the midbrain, is responsible for dopamine production. substantia nigra People suffering from Parkinson's disease show damage in this nucleus of the midbrain. substantia nigra This area of the tegmentum is rich in dopamine and serotonin neurons. ventral tegmental area Cocaine directly targets this area of the midbrain, and pleasurable activities also tend to activate this area. ventral tegmental area This forebrain structure provides a direct link between the cerebral cortex and the spine. corticospinal tract The two massive bundles of axons originating from each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex and running down to the spine mostly consist of ____ neurons. motor The corticospinal tract's two bundles of efferent fibers pass through this structure in the brain stem, with a majority of fibers (~80%) from each bundle crossing over to the opposite side of the body, en route to the spine. medulla oblongata This forebrain structure acts as a "translator" of sensory information, converting it into a form that can be understood by the cerebral cortex. (In lower vertebrates, it is the major sensory integrative area of the forebrain!) thalamus From a lateral sectional view, this forebrain structure looks like a curvy "eye" of the corpus callosum; but from a ventral view, one can see that this structure actually consists of a pair of large oval lobes that form a ^ shape and hang below the corpora quadrigemina. thalamus The hypothalamus controls this gland, considered the "master gland" of the endocrine system. pituitary gland The main function of this forebrain structure is to control autonomic nervous system (ANS) motivations (hunger, thirst, etc.) and maintain a state of homeostasis. hypothalamus The ____ receives inputs about the state of the body from a variety of sources, but it responds and makes adjustments (to maintain homeostasis) through two main channels: ____ signals to the ANS, and ____ signals to/through the pituitary gland. neural, endocrine From the Greek meaning "under the thalamus", this forebrain structure can alter blood pressure, body temperature, metabolism, as well as control every endocrine gland in the body. hypothalamus In humans, 90% of the ____ ____ consists of neopallium. cerebral cortex Latin for "new bark" or "new rind", this component of the cerebral cortex expanded in mammals to cover most of the forebrain, and became folded/convoluted in higher mammals, increasing surface area even further. neocortex The neocortex is also known as the ____ ("equal bark"/"equal rind"), or ____ ("new mantle"). isocortex, neopallium The cerebral cortex consists of two components: the ____, a 6-layer cortex otherwise known as the neocortex, and the ____, which has a variable number of layers, and makes up structures such as the olfactory cortex and hippocampus. isocortex, allocortex While advanced reptiles have structures similar to the neocortex (serves some similar cognitive functions), true neocortex, distinguished by its characteristic ____ layers, only exists in mammals, and is a distinguishing feature of mammals. six In humans, the neocortex is broadly synonymous with the ____ ____, since the latter is made up in large part (~90%) by the former. cerebral cortex This forebrain structure encodes new information and is thought to be involved in (long-term) memory. hippocampus This forebrain structure controls emotional reactions, such as fear, anger, aggression, and jealousy. amygdala The so-called "____ ____" refers to a group of structures around the brainstem involved in emotion, motivation, and emotion associated with memory (integrates emotion with stored memories of physical sensations). limbic system The neocortex in rats is smooth, but the neocortex in higher mammals expanded and developed folds, which form ____, or bumps, and ____, or fissures, thus effectively increasing surface area even further. gyri, sulci Limited dorsally by the cingulate sulcus, this gyrus partially wraps around the corpus callosum, linking areas dealing with emotion with areas dealing with decisions. cingulate gyrus The ____ hemisphere of the brain controls speech, motor control, as well as limbs on the ____ side of the body. left, right The ____ hemisphere of the brain controls spatial perception, musical ability, as well as limbs on the ____ side of the body. right, left The ____ ____ connects the two hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication between them. corpus callosum The ____ lobe of the brain controls motor, speech, reasoning, and problem solving. frontal The ____ lobe of the brain deals with visuospatial processing, integrating sensory information, particularly for determining the spatial location of objects. parietal The ____ lobe of the brain deals with auditory processing, as well as the semantics of both speech and vision. temporal The primary auditory cortex is located in this lobe of the brain. temporal Originally defined from Penfield's surface stimulation studies, this gyrus is a prominent landmark of the parietal lobe. lateral postcentral gyrus The ____ lobe of the brain contains most (though not all) of the anatomical region of the visual cortex, and is the visual processing center of the mammalian brain. occipital Seen in profile, this human brain resembles a boxing glove, and the ____ lobe of the brain resides where the "thumb" would be, while the fissure between the "thumb" and "hand" would be the lateral or ____ sulcus. temporal, Sylvian This type of visual aphasia which involves an inability to read is also known as "word blindness", or ____. alexia The inability to write (either due to brain damage or developmental causes) is also known as ____. agraphia The inability to organize or execute learned purposeful movements (either due to brain damage or developmental causes) is also known as ____. apraxia Filling the space between the arachnoid and pia matter, ____ ____ also fills the central canal of the spine, extending into the brain and filling the ventricles. cerebralspinal fluid When the cerebral cortex is removed, extreme, incredible rage that is directed at everything (known as ____ ____) is easily provoked. sham rage Damage to this portion of the basal ganglia may result in PAP syndrome, a strange loss of motivation, also known as athymhormic syndrome, or psychic akinesia. caudate nucleus Mr. M, a good swimmer, recognizes that he is drowning (thinks to himself "I'm drowning!"), yet fails to feel any motivation to do anything about it! He is suffering from a "loss of mental self-activation", or ____ ____. athymhormic syndrome The group of nuclei pairs within the temporal lobes (on both sides of the thalamus, below the cingulate gyrus) that interconnects with the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and brainstem is collectively known as the ____ ____. basal ganglia A major division of nuclei within the basal ganglia is known as the ____ ____, or "striped body". corpus striatum The corpus striatum consists of the ____ ____ ("tail), the ____ ("shell"), the ____ ____ ("pale globe", which lies underneath the "shell"), and the ____ ____ ("leaning against the septum") caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, nucleus accumbens Beginning just behind the frontal lobe and curving back toward the occipital lobe, this structure of the corpus striatum appears to be responsible for informing us that something is not right and we should do something about it! caudate nucleus Wash your hands! Lock your door! Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is likely to involve an overactive ____ ____. caudate nucleus This structure of the corpus striatum is involved in coordination of automatic behaviors such as riding a bike, driving a car, or working in an assembly line. putamen Located underneath the putamen, this structure of the corpus striatum receives inputs from the putamen and from the caudate nucleus, and transmits outputs to the substantia nigra. globus pallidus In addition to processing rewards such as food or sex, this structure of the corpus striatum is also involved in the regulation of emotions induced by music! nucleus accumbens Damage to the ventromedial region of the hypothalamus leads to overeating with no satiation of hunger, otherwise known as what? hyperphagia An inability to recognize objects, persons, sounds, shapes, or smells (despite no defect in particular sensory modality & no memory loss) is known as what? agnosia Another term for agraphia (the inability to write) is ____. dysgraphia An inability to produce and/or comprehend language (due to brain damage) is known as aphemia, or ____. aphasia Someone who can understand speech but has difficulty speaking (often speaking slowly and laboriously as well as omitting words) may have this form of aphasia. Broca's aphasia Someone who can speak but no longer understands how to correctly choose words (i.e. their speech is fluent but nonsensical) may have this form of aphasia. Wernicke's aphasia A person with this type of disorder might say: "Son... University... Smart... Boy... Good... Good..." Broca's aphasia Broca's aphasia is also known as expressive aphasia, fluent aphasia, or ____ ____, because sufferers cannot speak in a grammatically correct fashion. agrammatic aphasia Broca's area is located in the ____ ____ ____ in the frontal lobe, and is involved in language processing, speech production, and comprehension. inferior frontal gyrus Wernicke's area is located on the ____ ____ ____ in the temporal lobe, near the Sylvian fissure, and is involved in the comprehension of spoken language. superior temporal gyrus Wernicke's aphasia is also known as receptive aphasia, fluent aphasia, or ____ ____, because sufferers speak with normal rhythm using proper syntax, but produce sentences that have no meaning. jargon aphasia A patient who cannot carry out motor commands such as "salute"/"act as if you're brushing your teeth" (despite having the desire and the physical ability to perform the movements) may be suffering from this. apraxia Meaning "movement in space", ____ (or stereotactic) instruments locate small targets in the body (typically deep in the brain), such as lesions, using a 3-D location system, which can then be reached & treated using heat/cold/chemicals. stereotaxic Stereotaxic (or _____) instruments are used to implant and position electrodes deep into animals' brains in experiments. stereotactic Soon after birth, infants go through a ____ ____ ____ process in which many neural pathways are connected, and then some are later allowed to die out. Another wave of this process occurs during adolescence! blooming and pruning Neuron branches which receive impulses are called ____. Their branching patterns change throughout life! dendrites The ____ ____, or soma, is the large central portion of the neuron. cell body The cell body, or ____, contains a ____ that directs the neuron's activity. soma, nucleus The place where the soma and axon connect is called the ____ ____. axon hillock A narrower nerve fiber conducts nerve impulses more ____ compared to a wider nerve fiber. slowly These fatty insulating sheaths on some axons (resemble "beads on a string") allow for faster conduction of nerve impulses. myelin sheaths These non-neuronal cells in the nervous system provide support for neurons (surround them & hold them in place), supply nutrition & oxygen to neurons, insulate one neuron from another, and destroy pathogens/remove dead neurons. glial cells Glial cells, also known as ____ (or simply, glia), outnumber neurons in the human brain by about 10 to 1. neuroglia Myelin sheaths are composed of the plasma membranes of this type of glial cell. Schwann cell A neural impulse is initiated when neurotransmitters are released from the end of the neuron, called the terminal button, or ____. bouton A ____ synapse (or ____ ____) usually refers to a presynaptic terminal containing neurotransmitters, a gap (junction), and a postsynaptic neuron with receptor sites for the neurontransmitters. chemical, synaptic cleft The presynaptic cell consists of the end of one neuron, the ____ ____ (or bouton), while the postsynaptic cell consists of the beginning of another neuron, the ____. terminal button, dendrites Regularly spaced gaps along the mylein sheath covering an axon are called what? Nodes of Ranvier Unmyelinated axons do not have ____ ____ ____, so voltage-gated ion channels are spread out over the entire membrane surface, and impulses are conducted much more slowly. Nodes of Ranvier ____ ____ describes the way action potentials travel along myelinated axons (jumping from node to node). Saltatory conduction Action potentials travel through unmyelinated axons at a rate between ____ m/sec and ____ m/sec. 0.2, 2 Action potentials travel through myelinated axons at a rate between ____ m/sec and ____ m/sec. 12, 120 When an action potential traveling down an axon reaches the terminal button, it triggers the migration of ____ containing neurotransmitters toward the presynaptic membrane. vesicles The idea (recently proven false) that a given neuron produces and releases only one type of neurotransmitter is called ____ ____. Dale's Law Synapses typically involve a presynaptic axon terminal and a postsynaptic dendrite (axodendritic synapse), but synapses can also involve postsynaptic axons (____ ____) or postsynaptic cell bodies (____ ____). axoaxonic synapse, axosomatic synapse When a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor site on the ____ ____, it either excites or inhibts that neuron (increasing or decreasing its likelihood of firing an action potential). postsynaptic neuron An ____ ____, or nerve impulse, is a wave of electrical discharge that travels along the membrane of a cell. action potential A cell is ____ in that a difference in electrostatic potential always exists between the inside and the outside of the cell. polarized The membrane potential of a cell refers to the ____ ____ difference (measured in volts) across the cell's plasma membrane. electrical potential Sequences of action potentials generated by neurons to transmit information are known as "____ ____". spike trains The resting potential of the cell is primarily determined by the ____ of ions in the fluids on the inside and outside of the cell, as well as by the ion transport proteins on the cell membrane, along with potassium leak channels. concentration Each "typical" action potential consists of three phases: ____ or rising phase (voltage swings from -70 mV to +40 mV), ____ or falling phase (+40 mV back to -70 mV), and the ____ or undershoot (dips down to < -70 mV, then recovers). depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization In neurons, the resting potential is approximately ____ mV, meaning there is excess negative charge ____ of the cell, relative to the ____. -70, inside, outside Sodium-potassium pumps scattered across the cell membrane transport ____ ions of potassium into the cell for every ____ ions of sodium pumped out. two, three The sodium-potassium pump, also known as Na+/K+ -ATP-ase, is an ____ located in the plasma membrane of virtually every human cell. enzyme Although sodium-potassium pumps make significant contributions to resting membrane potential, in most cells, the resting potential is dominated by ____ ____ ____. potassium leak channels The resting cell membrane is about ____ times more permeable to ____ than to ____, due to potassium leak channels which are always open. 75, potassium, sodium Because of the dominant contribution of potassium leak channels to a cell's resting membrane potential (relative to NA+/K+ -ATP-ase), the cell's resting membrane potential is closer to the ____ ____ of potassium (~ -80 mV) than that of sodium (~ +70 mV). equilibrium potential After a neuron fires, it cannot fire again immediately; instead, there is an ____ ____ ____ during which it cannot respond to further stimulation. absolute refractory period During this period of time following the absolute refractory period, the neuron can fire, but needs a much stronger stimulus than normal to do so. relative refractory period After a neurotransmitter has done its job, it is either reabsorbed by the presynaptic cell in a process called ____, or it is deactivated by ____. reuptake, enzymes The ____ ____ refers to the fact that once a minimum threshold for stimulation is met, the nerve impulse will always be sent. (I.e. the intensity of a nerve impulse is always the same, regardless of the initial stimulation, as long as threshold is met). all-or-none law Changes in a postsynaptic neuron's membrane potential as a result of stimulation are either ____ (making it easier for that neuron to fire an action potential, and increasing its firing rate), or ____ (making it harder for that neuron to fire an action potential, and decreasing its firing rate). excitatory, inhibitory As a result of stimulation, positive ions (Na+) flow into the postsynaptic cell, causing this temporary increase in postsynaptic membrane potential, abbreviated EPSP. excitatory postsynaptic potential As a result of stimulation, the few positive ions (K+) flow out of the postsynaptic cell (while Cl- flows in), causing this further decrease in postsynaptic membrane potential (hyperpolarization), abbreviated IPSP. inhibitory postsynaptic potential Two of the most common inhibitory neurotransmitters in the nervous system are ____ (C4H9NO2) and ____ (C2H5NO2). GABA, glycine At resting potential, ____ ____ channels are open, while ____ ____ channels are closed. potassium leak, voltage-gated sodium At resting potential, the major ion species moving across the membrane is ____, which pulls the resting potential close to the ____ ____ ____. potassium, potassium equilibrium potential This important neurotransmitter is the neurotransmitter in all autonomic ganglia, and was the first neurotransmitter to be identified! acetylcholine Neurotransmitters that contain one amino group connected to an aromatic ring via a two-carbon chain (-CH2-CH2-) are called what? monoamines The body plans of most multicellular organisms exhibit some form of symmetry; either ____ ____ (such as jellyfish: phylum Cnidaria, class Scyphozoan), or ____ ____ (most animals). radial symmetry, bilateral symmetry The development of ____ ____ favored the development of a central nerve center, cephalization, as well as directed movement. bilateral symmetry An evolutionary trend, by which nervous tissue, over many generations, becomes concentrated toward one end of an organism, eventually producting a head region with sensory organs. cephalization Jellyfish belong to phylum ____, class ____. Cnidaria, Scyphozoan Flatworms (phylum ____) are relatively simple soft-bodied, invertebrate animals, that nevertheless represent a significant advance in neural organization from the Cnidarians: ____ ____, an ability to control the direction of their movement. Platyhelminthes, directed movement Cnidarians possess a simple nervous system called a ____ ____, which consists of a connected network of neurons without any apparent central control. nerve net The nerve net in ____ allow them to sense touch, feel pain, detect food (and other chemicals), but cannot alert the animals as to the direction the stimulus is coming from! Cnidarians The most simple ____ ____ (neural impulse which circumvents the brain) contains a sensory neuron, an association neuron, and a motor neuron which synapses with an effector cell. reflex arc This type of ganglia lie just outside of the spinal cord, with their axons entering the spinal cord dorsally, where they synapse with association neurons in the spinal cord's gray matter. dorsal-root ganglia The first neurons appeared in ____, or Cnidarians, a phylum of radially symmetrical invertebrates. coelenterates Neurons do not exist in sponges (phylum ____), or more primitive organisms. Porifera Cnidarians (e.g. jellyfish, corals, sea anemones, hydroids) have a simple nervous system (nerve net) composed of ____ ____ (receive stimuli & pass it on), which stimulate ____ ____ (responds to stimuli by contracting! i.e. muscle/gland) receptor-conductor cells, effector cells In terms of basic construction, vertebrate brains are all similar in that even the most principle vertebrate brain has these 3 principle divisions. hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain The olfactory bulbs lie in which part of the brain? (Out of the three principle divisons of the brain common to all vertebrates). forebrain The optical lobes lie in which part of the brain? (Out of the three principle divisons of the brain common to all vertebrates). midbrain In terms of total volume, all the glial cells account for about ____% of the nervous system. 50 Bundles of individual axons are called what? nerves The generic term for any natural or synthetic compound that stimulates the development or maintenance of masculine characteristics in vertebrates is what? androgen Androgens are also known as androgenic hormones, or ____. testoids This hormone, released when the body is low on water, causes kidneys to conserve water (by concentrating urine & reducing urine volume). antidiuretic hormone Antidiuretic hormone, also known as ____ ____ (AVP), or ____, causes water retension. arginine vasopressin, argipressin The thyroid gland is stimulated by a hormone from this hormone released by the pituitary gland (anterior). thyroid-stimulating hormone Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is also known as ____. thyrotropin This hormone stimulates milk production. prolactin The primary male sex hormone is ____, while the primary female sex hormone is ____. testosterone, estrogen These substances function like neurotransmitters in that they're released by neurons into synapses (and modulate the activities of adjacent/distant neurons), but they're different from neurotransmitters in that they're not reabsorbed or broken down! neuromodulators Dopamine is an example of this class of neurotransmitters derived from tyrosine! catecholamines Serotonin is an example of this class of neurotransmitters derived from tryptophan! indolamines These two catecholamines act as neurotransmitters in the CNS, but as hormones in blood circulation! epinephrine, dopamine This hormone, synthesized and released by gonadotropes in the anterior pituitary gland, stimulates the growth of immature Graafian follicles (ovaries), and enhances the production of androgen-binding protein (by Sertoli cells of testes), a critical component of spermatogenesis. follicle-stimulating hormone This hormone, synthesized and released by gonadotropes in the anterior pituitary gland, triggers ovulation, and stimulates the production of testosterone by Leydig cells. luteinizing hormone