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Hindsight bias tendency to believe that one woul have foreseen it after the results are shown. "i knew it all along, it was on the tip of my tounge." confirmation bias we seek out or notice evidence that will verify our ideas more eagerly than we seek evidence that might refure them. social psychologist study how we thinkabout, influene, and relate to others. attribution theory the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition fundamental attribution error overestimating the influence of personality and underestimating the influence of situations. attitude feelings influenced by beliefs that predispose our reactions to objects, people and events. central route persuasion mostly when people are naturally analytical or involved in the issue. when issues require lots of thinking. peripheral route when people make quick judgements and decisions. foot in the door phenomenon a tendency for people who agree to a small action to agree later with a larger one. role may have to act diferently and the behavior feels false cognitive dissonance theory we ac to reduce the discomfort w feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistant. when atitude and actions clash. chameleon effect unconsiously mimicking others' voice tone, expressions, and posture. it helops us feel what the are feeling. conformity adjusting our thinking or behavior to a group standard to fit in. normative social influence may not believe others, but pretend to in order to gain approval or avoid dissapproval. informational social influence influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality. social facilitation stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasksin the presence of others. tough tasks are actually harder when others are present. indvidual. social loafing tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when trying to attain a common goal. group. deindividuation the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity group polarization the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations, or prferences, through discussion within the group over time. the more you talk about something the more it seems like a good idea. group think mode of thinking that occurs when teh desire for harmony in a decision making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. social control power of the situation personal control power of the individual minority influence power of one or two people to sway majority. prejudice prejudgement. unjustifiable attitude towards a grou and its members. stereotypes generalized belief about a group of people discrimination negative behavior towardsa group implicit racial assoiations associationg ugly words or bad things with black faces, and good with white faces. unconscious patronization rate or think higher of or do something withing realizing it to make it look like someone isn't racist. race-influenced perceptions people associate race with certain actions or emotions gender in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female social inequalities stereotypes rationalize inequalities ingroup with whom we share identity ingroup bias tendency to favor our group scapegoat theory prejudice provides an outlet for anger by finding someone to blame other-race effect tendency to recall faces of one's own race better just-world phenomenon beliving the world is just and people get what they deserve. agression any physical or verbal behaviorintended to hurt or destroy aversive events events that make others miserable will make other people miserable frustration-agression principle principle that the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal creates anger, which can generate agression. rape myth idea that some women start liking rape catharsis hypothesis we feel better after blowing off steam by venting our emotions. altruism unselfish regrd for the welfare of others. diffusion of responsibility when more people share responsibility, they less they are likely to help bystander efect tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if others are present. social exhange theory our behavior is to maximize benefits and minimize costs reciprocity norm an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. give as much as we recieve. social responsibility norm help those who need our help social trap situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. mirror image perceptions mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and the other side as evil superordinate goals shared goals that override conflictin group's differences shared predicament fearsome external threat and a subordiate desire to overcome it proximity geographic nearness that provides opportunities for aggression but most likely will breed friendship mere-exposure effect phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases the liking of them. like our image in the mirro rmore than the one our friends see reward theory of attraction we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us and continue relationships with more rewards than costs. self-disclosure revealing intimate things to one another heuristics rules of thumb, shortcut methods to solve problems vivid cases (availability heuristics) estimating the likelihood of events based on the availibity in memory illusory correlation can lead us to believe a relationship exists between two events when none really does. confirmation bias tendency to notice andrecall instances that confirm our beliefs and ignore instances that disconfurm our belifees. spill over effect blowing off steam may temporarily relieve anger, but may amplify underlying hostility and therefore influence our subjective view of relief. adaptability capacity to learn new behaviors that help us cope with changes associative learning learning that certain events go toether. conditioning process of learning associations classical conditioning associate two stimuli and thus anticipate events operant conditioning associate a response and its consequence. to avoid acts with bad consequences and repeat acts with good results. observational learning learn from others' expereinces behaviorism view that psychology should be an objective science and studies behavior without reference to mental processes unconditioned response unlearned, natural ocuring response to the unconditiioned stimulus, such as saliva when eating. unconditioned stimulus stimulus that naturally triggers response conditioned response learned response to a previously neutral (now conditioned) stimulus conditioned, unconditioned ______ is to learned as __________is to unlearned. acquisition initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned simulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. extinction diminished responding that occurs when the CS no longer signals impending US spontaneous recovery reappearanc of a weakened CR after a break generalization tendency to respond to a similar stimuli to teh CS discrimination learned ability t distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli locus of control The amount of control that a person feels he or she has over the environment negative reinforcement increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs regression psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated imaginary audience common belief among adolescents that they are the center of other people's attention temperament a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity functional fixedness the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving operational definition A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. replication the repetition of an experiment in order to test the validity of its conclusion reinforcement (psychology) a stimulus that strengthens or weakens the behavior that produced it overjustification effect The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do - the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task myelin sheath a layer of fatty tissue encasing a neuron's axon that speeds transmission neural impulse electrical signal traveling down the axon skewed distribution An asymmetrical distribution of scores on some variable, with scores clustering toward the high or low end of the possible range of values. variable interval schedule in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals extinction a conditioning process in which the reinforcer is removed and a conditioned response becomes independent of the conditioned stimulus responsive parenting bolby&ainsworth. what kind of parents are sensitive, responding parents>child with secure attachment. inconsistant, non-responsive>insecure/anxious children attachment an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation egocentrism in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view preconventional level of morality stages 1 and 2 in kohlbergs model of moral reasoning in which individuals make moral judgments in their own interests. if something will cause a punishment to be given accommodation adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information Id contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. This operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification overgeneralization applying grammar rules in areas they don't apply ("I writed a story"; goed; comed) gender schema theory the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly broca's area controls language expression-an aread of the frontal, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech evolutionary theory of mate selection men's attraction to multiple healthy, fertile-appearing partners increases their chance of spreading their genes. women look for men with resources and potential for long term investment in offspring autonomic nervous system The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. pruning the process through which the developing brain eliminates unnecessary or redundant synapses during puberty biological preparedness In learning theory, the idea that an organism is innately predisposed to form associations between certain stimuli and responses. classical conditioning a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian conditioning stranger anxiety the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age cognitive dissonance The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent. defense mechanisms in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality cognitive map a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. cerebellum the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance observational learning A type of learning that occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models. reicular formation A nerve network in the brainstem; plays an important role in controlling arousal. predictive validity The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior self efficacy Refers to one's belief about one's ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes. Those with high levels for a particular task are more likely to succeed than those with low levels confirmation bias a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions general adaptation syndrome Seylye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three stages--alarm, resistance, exhaustion experimental design A design in which researchers manipulate an independent variable and measure a dependent variable to determine a cause-and-effect relationship psychology the scientific study of behavior and mental processes wilhelm wundt german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879 edward titchener Student of Wilhelm Wundt; founder of Structuralist school of psychology. structuralism an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind william james founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment functionalism a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes work-how they enable us to adapt, survive and flourish neuroscience perspective on psychology that emphasizes the study of the brain and its effects on behavior evolutionary perspective perspective that focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share behavior genetics The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. psychodynamic the perspective of psychological science that deals with how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts sigmund freud neurologist who originated psychoanalysis. Said that human behavior is irrational; behavior is the outcome of conflict between the id (irrational unconscious driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires) and ego (rationalizing conscious, what one can do) and superego (ingrained moral values, what one should do). behavioral perspective perspective of psychology that sees psychology as an objective science without reference to mental states; sees behavior as the result of conditioning & reinforcement john b. watson American psychologist who founded behaviorism, emphasizing the study of observable behavior and rejecting the study of mental processes B.F. Skinner pioneer of operant conditioning who believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments. he is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pidgeons and rats. cognitive perspective A psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior jean piaget This man created the Four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. preoperational, 3. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational. He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation and accomodation. social-cultural perspective focuses on how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures humanistic perspective the psychological view that assumes the existence of the self and emphasizes the importance of self-awareness and the freedom to make choices carl rogers Humanistic therapy client centered therapy and unconditional positive regard. Make clients feel they are being understood and develop strong self-worth. abraham maslow humanistic psychologist; hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied; self-actualization, transcendence applied research scientific study that aims to solve practical problems basic research pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base psychologist A scientist who studies the mind and behavior of humans and animals psychiatrist a medical doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders; can prescribe medication biopsychosocial approach an integrated perspective that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis foot-in-the-door term describes a phenomenon in which people who agree to a small request are more likely to later agree to a larger request false consensus effect the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors overconfidence effect we overestimate our accuracy and our chances of success and ability to predict and explain belief perseverance clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited critical thinking thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. framing the way an issue is posed; how an issue is shown can significantly affect decisions and judgments correlation coefficient A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other single-blind studies studies in which participants do not know the experimental condition (group) to which they have been assigned. double-blind studies Experiments in which neither the participants nor the people analyzing the results know who is in the control group experimenter bias expectations by the experimenter that might influence the results of an experiment or its interpretation placebo effect experimental results caused by expectations alone; standard deviation a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. standardization defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group. flynn effect the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years predictive validity The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior content validity the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest (such as a driving test that samples driving tasks). aptitude test a test designed to predict a person's future performance; the capacity to learn. achievement test a test designed to assess what a person has learned prototype a mental image or best example of a category fixation the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving mental set a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past representativeness heuristic this cognitive short cut enables one to generalization based on how closely a stimulus matches a typical member of a class; given a picture of a man in a tweed jacket with a textbook, is this man a professor or a truck driver? phonemes smallest units of sound in the human language, like consonants or vowels morphemes smallest meaningful units of speech; simple words, suffixes, prefixes; examples: red, hot, calm, -ed, pre- semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language syntax the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences receptive language the ability to comprehend speech productive language ability to produce words language acquisition devise built-in mechanism for acquiring language - Chomsky's nature theory for language development aphasia inability to use or understand language (spoken or written) because of a brain lesion wernicke's area controls language reception- a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe associative learning learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). respondent behavior behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus operant behavior behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences law of effect Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. operant chamber a chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research. primary reinforcer an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need secondary reinforcer stimulus such as money that becomes reinforcing through its link with a primary reinforcer positive reinforcement any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response positive punishment following an undesired response by adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of the behavior reoccuring. adding something to decrease the behavior. negative punishment taking something away to decrease the behavior. continuous reinforcement reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs partial reinforcement reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction fixed ratio schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses variable ratio schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses fixed interval schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed instrinsic motivation exists when the source of motivation lies within the individual and task extrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment mirror neurons frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so phrenology a now abandoned study of the shape of skull as indicative of the strengths of different faculties dendrite the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body axon long fiber that carries impulses away from the cell body of a neuron cell body largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm axon terminal button at the end of the cell--releases neurotransmitters action potential a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon resting potential -while the neuron is Polarized, it is in a stable, negatively charged, inactive state depolarization changes in membrane voltage in which the membrane potential becomes less positive or less negative repolarization the neuron tries to quickly restore it's charge by pumping out the positively charged ions and bringing back the negative ones. hyperpolarization the neuron becomes even more negative on the inside relative to the outside refractory period the time after a neuron fires or a muscle fiber contracts during which a stimulus will not evoke a response myelin sheath accelerates a neuron's signals inhibitory signals prevent a neuron from firing threshold the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse all or none response a nerve or muscle fibre responds completly or not at all to a stimulus synaptic transmission the process through which neurotransmitters are released by one neuron, cross the synaptic gap, and affect adjoining neurons. synapse the junction between two neurons (axon-to-dendrite) or between a neuron and a muscle neurotransmitters chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they will travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. reuptake a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron. agonist any drug that enhances the actions of a specific neurotransmitter antagonist drug which blocks the activity of neurotransmitters peripheral nervous system the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body somatic nervous system the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles autonomic nervous system the part of the nervous system of vertebrates that controls involuntary actions of the smooth muscles and heart and glands EEG An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. PET a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task MRI a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain amygdale limbic system structure responsible for emotional responses, particularly aggression and fear glial cells cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. phineas gage railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function angular gyrus translates writing into speech plasticity the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience epinephrine adrenaline; activates a sympathetic nervous system by making the heart beat faster, stopping digestion, enlarging pupils, sending sugar into the bloodstream, preparing a blood clot faster depressant a drug that reduces excitability and calms a person stimulant a drug that increases the action of the central nervous system, the heart, and other organs fight or flight an emergency response, including activity of the sympathetic nervous system, that mobilizes energy and activity for attacking or escaping a threat cognitive appraisal individuals' interpretation of the events in their lives as harmful, threatening, or challenging and their determination of whether they have the resources to cope effectively with the events. nature vs. nurture name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior gene-environment interaction situation in which the effects of genes depend on the environment in which they are expressed individualism giving priority to one's own goals over group goals, and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications collectivism giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly gender identity our sense of being male or female gender typed the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine roles social learning theory the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished longitudinal studies Research method in which data are collected about a group of participants over a number of years to assess how certain characteristics change or remain the same during development. cross-sectional studies a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another habituation decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner maturation biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience. sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational piaget's four stages in order theory of mind people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict. personal fable the part of adolescent egocentrism that involves an adolescent's sense of uniqueness and invincibility avoidant insecure attachment tend to avoid parents or caregivers. When offered a choice, these children will show no preference between a caregiver and a complete stranger ambivalent insecure attachment become very distressed when a parent leaves; cannot depend on their mother (or caregiver) to be there when the child is in need authoritarian style of parenting in which the parent creates strict rules for the child and the child has little or no input into determining the rules permissive describes a parenting style that is characterized by the parent making few demands on the child authoritative A parenting style based on recognized authority or knowledge and characterized by mutual respect neglectful these kind of parents aren't very warm or controlling preconventional morality first level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior conventional morality second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior postconventional morality third level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the person's behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual and that may be in disagreement with accepted social norms foreclosure Erikson's term for premature identity formation, which occurs when an adolescent adopts parent's or society's roles and values wholesale, without questioning and analysis moratorium the status of adolescents who may have explored various identity alternatives to some degree, but have not yet committed themselves acetylcholine a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction crystallized intelligence one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age fluid intelligence one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood preconscious level of consciousness that is outside awareness but contains feelings and memories that can easily be brought into conscious awareness unconscious according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware ego the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain superego the part of the personality in Freud's theory that is responsible for making moral choices oral stage Freud's first stage of psychosexual development during which pleasure is centered in the mouth anal stage Freud's pychosexual period during which a child learns to control his bodily excretions phallic stage The third of Freud's psychosexual development in which genitals are the source of pleasure and the Oedipus Complex begins inferiority complex Adler's theory of the feelings of inadequacy or inferiority in young children that influence their developing personalities and create desires to overcome self actualization according to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential learned helplessness lack of motivation to avoid unpleasant stimuli after one has failed before to escape similar stimuli