Midterms

Terms	Definitions
Cleopatra's Needle
Checkerboard Mesa
Valle Grande
Crater Lake
Monument Valley
Ship Rock
Antelope Canyon
Wizard Island
Exfoliation Dome
Spheroidal Weathering
Frost Wedging
Wind Gap
Ventifact
Caldera
Lava Dome
Mesa
Butte
Talus Slope
Columnar Jointing
Volcanic Neck
Cattle Guard
Mushroom Rock
Desert Pavement
Cap Stone
Hoodoo
Desert Varnish
Petroglyph
Avalanche
Creep
Surface Hoar
Cornice
Snow slab
Box Canyon
Landslide
slump
mudflow
slipface
Exfoliation Dome	Where granite formed from magma deep underground (pluton) has been brought to the surface and flakes off in large sheets due to release in pressure.
Continental Divide	Imaginary line. To west, water will flow to Pacific and to east, water will flow to Atlantic
Spheroidal Weathering	Idea that edges of objects tend to weather first, therefore rounding the object
Frost Wedging	When water freezes it expands about 10% in volume. Therefore in cold climates, the most weathering and erosion is done by frost weathering. Water seeps into cracks of rocks, freezes, expands, and eventually the rock will break apart.
Cleopatra's Needle	Large monument in desert in Egypt for 3,000 years, moved to NYC, after 100 years very weathered by chemicals (acid rain and pollution)
Wind Gap	A pass carved through a rock outcrop by flowing water
Ventifact	any rock that has been shaped by the wind
Checkerboard Mesa	Fossilized Sand Dune
Valle Grande	is a 12-mile-wide collapsed volcanic caldera in the Jemez Mountains of northern New Mexico.
Caldera	collapsed volcanic crater
Ponderosa Pine	Bark smells like vanilla or sugar cookies
Crater Lake	Large caldera created in Oregon from emptied magma chamber (collapsed) after eruption
Lava Dome	a bulbous mass associated with an old-age volcano produced when thick lava is slowly squeezed from the vent, lava domes may act as plugs to deflect subsequent gaseous eruptions
Mesa	broad, flat-topped landform with steep sides; smaller than a plateau
Butte	a flat topped rock or hill formation with steep sides, highly weathered Mesa
Talus Slope	Pile of debris at the base of a cliff, roughly 45 degree angle
Columnar Jointing	Basalt lava flows contract and may fracture in roughly hexagonal columns.
Volcanic Neck	solid igneous core of a volcano left behind after the softer cone has been eroded
Differential Weathering	Varying rates of weathering resulting from some rocks in an area being more resistant to weathering than others. This often produces spectacular landscapes.
Cattle Guard	grate in the road which cows will not walk over
Mushroom Rock	Rock shaped like a mushroom, created when wind blown sand erodes the base of the rock
Desert Pavement	A layer of coarse pebbles and gravel created when wind removed the finer material.
Deflation	Erosion from wind lifting up and removing loose material, moves finer particles in the air and rolls the larger grains
Monument Valley	a region of the Colorado Plateau characterized by a cluster sandstone buttes, including the mitten rocks
Cap Stone	A rock that protects other rocks beneath it
Hoodoo	a column of weathered rock
Desert Varnish	Is the dark coating made of clay minerals, iron and magnesium oxides found on the surface of exposed rock surfaces in arid environments.
Petroglyph	A carving or inscription on a rock.
Ice Wedging	Water seeps into cracks, freezes and expands
Magma Chamber	an underground pool that holds magma, below a volcano
Sheeting	outer surface of rocks will break off due to reduction in pressure fom where it formed
Avalanche	A falling mass of snow that contains rocks, dirt and ice
Mass Movement	The down slope transportation of large masses of earth materials by gravity
Creep	Slow, imperceptible movement of material downhill (curved Trees)
White Death	Whispered Nickname for an avalanche
Surface Hoar	forms when snow is exposed to the air, crystals get larger. Creates weak layer of snow.
Cornice	Overhang of snow that is created as wind blows snow over the top of a mountain
Snow slab	Large block of snow that breaks free when a weak layer of snow is below stong layer(s)
Sediment	broken pieces of rock, categorized by size
Erosion	Removal and transport of weather materials by natural processes
Weathering	The breaking down of rocks and other materials on the Earth's surface.
Mechanical Weathering	The type of weathering in which rock is physically broken into smaller pieces
Chemical Weathering	the process in which rock is broken down by changes in its chemical makeup
Abrasion	the wearing down of rock particles by friction due to water or wind or ice
Oxidation	the chemical reaction of oxygen with other substances
Acid Rain	precipitation that is more acidic than normal because of air pollution
Hydrolysis	chemical decomposition of rock in which a compound is split into other compounds by reacting with water
Box Canyon	a small canyon with steep, vertical walls on three sides, allowing access and only through the mouth of the canyon. ...
Landslide	a slide of a large mass of dirt and rock down a mountain or cliff
slump	when a mass of material slips down slope along a curved surface
earthflow	a mass of saturated, weathered material that flows downhill. Slower and less fluid than a mudflow.
mudflow	The rapid downhill movement of a mixture of water, rock, and soil.
Avalanche Sigh	Blast of air that moves in front of an avalanche
Volcanic Pipe	brings magma from magma chamber towards the surface
Inorganic	not formed from living things or the remains of living things
Color	property of a mineral, least helpful
Luster	The way a mineral reflects light
Specific Gravity	the ratio of a mineral's weight compared with the weight of an equal volume of water
Organic	formed from living things or the remains of living things
Hardness	a mineral's resistance to being scratched
Streak	color of a mineral's powder left behind on a streak plate
Solidification	the process of becoming hard or solid by cooling Ex: magma into an igneous rock
Naturally Occurring	not made-made
Fracture	the manner in which a mineral breaks along either curved or irregular surfaces
Cleavage	tendency of a mineral to break along flat surfaces
Melting	the process whereby heat changes something from a solid to a liquid
Deposition	the laying down of sediments on the ocean floor
Compaction	The process by which sediments are pressed together under their own weight to form sedimentary rocks
Cementation	The process in which minerals precipitate into pore spaces between sediment grains and bind sediments together to form rock.
Lithification	the process of turning something into rock
Weathering	The breaking down of rocks and other materials on the Earth's surface.
Erosion	The removal and transport of weathered material by natural processes
Pressure	the force applied to a unit area of surface, forces water out between grains of sediment in the lithification process, also can cause rocks to metamorphose
Silcates	most abundant group of minerals, made up of compounds that contain silicon and oxygen
Silica Tetrahedron	Basic building block of silicate minerals, made up of four oxygen atoms and 1 silicon aton
Metamorphic Rock	A type of rock that forms from an existing rock that is changed by heat, pressure, or chemical reactions
Igneous Rock	a type of rock that forms from the cooling of molten rock at or below the surface
Sedimentary Rock	A type of rock that forms when particles from other rocks or the remains of plants and animals are pressed and cemented together
Mineral	a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid that has a crystal structure and a definite chemical composition
Magma	molten (liquid) rock located below the surface
Lava	molten (liquid) rock that has reached the surface
Conchoidal	type of fracture with curved breaks, like what happens with thick glass or the bottom of a bottle, shell shaped
Double Refraction	property exhibited by transparent minerals that produce a double image of any object viewed through them, Ex: The mineral Iceland Spar
Parasite	an organism that grows, feeds and is sheltered on or in a different organism while contributing nothing to the survival of its host
Cyclostome	any organism with a round mouth and no jaw
Catadramous	organisms that live is fresh water and spawn in the ocean
Army Corp of Engineers	The group responsible for major engineering projects completed by the government
Molten	hot, liquid rock
Sediment	broken up pieces of rock
Crystal	a solid in which the atoms are arranged in a pattern that repeats again and again
Mineralogy	the study of minerals
Rock	A group of minerals bound together
Rock Forming Minerals	10-15 different minerals that compose about 90% of all the rocks in Earth's crust
Rock Cycle	a series of processes on the surface and inside Earth that changes rocks from one kind to another
air pressure	the weight of the air above an object
aneroid barometer	an instrument that measure air pressure, An instrument that measures changes in air pressure without using a liquid. Changes in the shape of an airtight metal box cause a needle on the barometer dial to move.
pressure gradient force	Drives air from areas of higher barometric pressure to areas of lower barometric pressure, causing winds.
isobar	a line on a weather map that joins points having the same barometric pressure
high	an area in which the barometric pressure is greater than that of the surrounding air
low	an area in which the barometric pressure is lower than that of the surrounding air
anemometer	an instrument that measures wind speed
Coriolis Effect	The way Earth's rotation makes winds in the Northern Hemisphere curve to the right and winds in the Southern Hemisphere curve to the left.
Air Mass	a body of air that has about the same temperature and moisture throughout
Front	a boundary between two air masses of different density, moisture, or temperature
Convection Current	the movement of a fluid, caused by differences in temperature, that transfers heat from one part of the fluid to another
Occluded Front	a front where a warm air mass is caught between two colder air masses and brings cool temperatures and large amounts of rain and snow
Jet Stream	narrow belt of strong winds that blows near the top of the troposphere across the US
Wind Vain	an instrument used to determine the direction that the wind is blowing
Friction	the resistance encountered when one body is moved in contact with another. Slows down the speed of wind when it flows over land
Cold Front	forms when cold air moves under warm air which is less dense and pushes air up
warm front	moving weather front along which a warm air mass slides over a cold air mass, producing stratiform clouds and precipitation
High	Area of high pressure where wind will move away from, associated with dry and nice weather and air that is sinking
Low	Area of low pressure where wind will move towards, associated with cloudy and rainy weather and air that is rising
Mercury Barometer	An instrument that measures changes in air pressure, consisting of a glass tube partially filled with mercury, with its open end resting in a dish of mercury. Air pressure pushing on the mercury in the dish forces the mercury in the tube to be higher.
Troposphere	The layer of the atmosphere we live in. The temperature decreases the higher you go
Ozone	a form of oxygen that has three oxygen atoms in each molecule instead of two 03. protects us from dangerous ultraviolet radiation from the sun
Insolation	The solar radiation (energy from the sun) that reaches Earth.
Dew Point	The temperature at which saturation occurs and condensation begins; a measure of the amount of water vapor in the air.
Sublimation	a change directly from the solid to the gaseous state or gaseous to solid without becoming liquid
Condensation Nuclei	Microscopic particles on which water vapor condenses to form cloud droplets.
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rates	Rising unsaturated air cooling at a rate of about 1 degree Celsius for every 100m it rises.
Tropic of Cancer	a line of latitude about 23 degrees North of the equator
Tropic of Capricorn	a line of latitude about 23 degrees South of the equator
Mare's Tail	Type of cirrus cloud, indicates rain in 24 hours
Stratus	Clouds that form in low, horizontal layers, cover all or most of sky
Stratosphere	The layer of Earth's atmosphere that extends from the troposhere to the mesosphere; concentrations of ozone cause it to get warmer as you go up in this layer.
Radiation	The transfer of energy through space in the form of visible light, ultraviolet rays and other types of electromagnetic waves
Specific Humidity	The amount of water vapor in the air at a given time and place; expressed as the number of grams of water vapor per kilogram of air.
Capacity	The maximum amount of water that can be present in the air at a certain temperature. Warmer the temp, higher the capacity
Dew	moisture from the air that forms drops on cool surfaces
Cirrus	High-altitude clouds that are thin, feathery tufts of ice crystals.
Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rates	Is the rate at which saturated air cools as it rises, .5 degrees Celsius for every 100m of rising
Frost	moisture frozen on or in a surface; feathery crystals of ice formed when water vapor in the air condenses at a temperature below freezing
Autumnal Equinox	Occurs in September, in the northern hemisphere, and marks the beginning of fall in the Northern Hemisphere
Winter Solstice	begins on Dec. 21st in northern hemisphere; northern hemisphere is tilted away from the sun, so it's the coldest time of the year
Crepuscular Ray	Rays of light that shine through clouds
Halo	a circle of light around the sun or moon
Mesosphere	The layer of the Earth's atmosphere that extends from the stratosphere to the thermosphere, characterized by decreasing temperatures.
Conduction	The transfer of heat energy through collisions of the atoms or molecules of a substance, the direct transfer of heat from one substance to another substance that it is touching
Relative Humidity	A comparison of the actual amount of water vapor in the air with the maximum amount if water vapor that can be present in air. Specific Humidity/Capacity
Evaporation	the change of a substance from a liquid to a gas
Latent Heat	heat absorbed or given off during a change of phase at a constant temperature
Fog	A stratus cloud located on the ground
Cumulus	Thick, fluffy clouds with flat bases, formed by vertically rising air currents
Vernal Equinox	the day of the year that marks the beginning of spring in the northern hemisphere
CFC's	Chlorinated Fluorocarbons are chemicals that break down the ozone layer
Alto	High clouds.
Sun Dog	Rainbows located to the right and left of the sun. Seen with cirrostratus clouds, indicate rain is coming
Thermosphere	The layer of Earth's atmosphere above the mesosphere, characterized by increasing temperatures with altitude.
Convection	The transfer of heat energy in a liquid or gas through the motion of the liquid or gas caused by differences in density
Saturation	The condition in which the air is holding as much water vapor as possible at a given temperature and pressure.
Condensation	The change from water vapor to liquid water
Water Vapor	An invisible gas formed when water reaches 100 degrees Celsius and evaporates
Condensation Level	The altitude at which water vapor begins to condense.
Summer Solstice	On June 21, it is the longest day in the Northern Hemisphere due to the fact that the sun is directly over the tropic of Cancer
Virga	light wispy precipitation that evaporates before it reaches the ground (especially when the lower air is low in humidity)
Nimbo	Dark rain clouds.
Anthropogenic	Caused by humans
Freezing Rain	raindrops that freeze after they hit the ground or other cold surfaces
Hail	precipitation of ice pellets when there are strong rising air currents
Sleet	a type of precipitation that forms when it falls through a layer of freezing air
Windward	on the side exposed to the wind
Leeward	the side of something that is sheltered from the wind
Radiation	energy that is radiated or transmitted in the form of rays or waves or particles
Conduction	the direct transfer of heat from one substance to another substance that it is touching
Convection	the transfer of heat through a fluid (liquid or gas) caused by molecular motion
Temperature	the average kinetic energy of the individual particles
Heat	a form of energy that is transferred by a difference in temperature
Troposphere	the lowest atmospheric layer
Stratosphere	the atmospheric layer between the troposphere and the mesosphere
Ozone	a form of oxygen that has three oxygen atoms in each molecule instead of two. protects us from dangerous ultraviolet radiation from the sun
Mesosphere	the atmospheric layer between the stratosphere and the thermosphere
Thermosphere	the atmospheric layer between the mesosphere and the exosphere
Ionosphere	the outer region of the Earth's atmosphere
Insolation	the amount of the sun's energy that reaches earth at a given time and place
Geology	The study of the Earth's surface and interior
Hypothesis	A possible explanation for a observation or phenomenon, developed from available info and used as a basis for testing
Astronomical Unit	The average distance between Earth and the sun, about 150 million kilometers
Galaxy	a group of millions, even billions, of stars held together by gravity
Nebula	A large cloud of dust and gas in space
Planetary Accretion	The gradual growth of a planet by collision and sticking
Super Nova	Brilliant burst of light that follows the collapse of the iron core and explosion of a massive star
Crust	The very thin outer layer of the Earth, above the mantle composed of a rigid later of lighter rocks
Singularity	the infinitely small space that all matter in the universe existed before the Big Bang
Astronomy	The study of the universe
Control	Part of the experiment that is the same
Light Year	The distance that light travels in a year, about 9.5 trillion kilometers
Local Group	group of nearby galaxies that the milky way belongs to
Oblate Spheroid	shape of the earth, a slightly flattened sphere
Big Bang	Theory of creation of Universe by instant expansion of an extremely small piece of matter of extremely high density and temperature
Meteor	Light made by meteoroid as it passes through Earth's atmosphere
Meteoroid	A rocky or icy fragment that travels through space
Meteorite	The part of a large meteoroid that survives its trip through the atmosphere and strikes Earth's surface
Mantle	The thickness of Earth's layers, located between the outer core and the Earth's crust, composed mostly of compounds rich in iron, silicon, and magnesium
Tambora	Volcano located in Indonasia that erupted in 1815 and caused the Year without a Summer in New England during 1816
Oceanography	The scientific study of the ocean and seas
Variable	Part of an experiment that is changed. What is being tested
Kilometer	Unit of length. 1000 meters
Virgo Cluster	The closest cluster of galaxies to our local cluster. Contains roughly 2000 galaxies
Planetesimal	during planetary accretion, when blobs of matter collide to form and object 1 -10 km in size
Elements	A substance composed of atoms that are chemically alike and that cannot be broken down into simpler parts
Asteroid	A solid, rocklike mass that revolves around the sun.
Inner Core	The solid, inner most layer of the Earth, composed of iron and nickel under extremely high pressure and temperature
Tunguska	Located in Siberia, site where a asteroid struck in 1908 with the power of 1000 atmonic bombs
Meteorology	The study of processes that govern Earth's atmosphere
Theory	An explanation based on observation, reasoning, and experimentation, especially one that has been tested and confirmed as a general explanation for a phenomena that has been observed
Planet	1) Round 2) Orbits the Sun 3) cleared most of its orbit of derbis
Nebular Hypothesis	The theory for how the solar system formed
Condensation	The change from water vapor to liquid water
Comet	a mass of rock, ice, dust, and gas traveling around the sun usually in a highly eccentric orbit
Solar System	The sun and its family of orbiting planets, moons, and debris
Outer Core	The layer of the Earth's interior located between the inner core and mantle, composed of iron and nickel in a liquid state
White Nights	Occurred in 1908 in Northern Europe for three nights after the asteroid stuck Tunguska
Apparent Magnitude	the brightness of a star when viewed from Earth
Constellation	A group of stars that form a pattern in the sky
Lithosphere	the solid part of the earth consisting of the crust and outer mantle
Asthenosphere	the lower part of the earth's crust and the upper portion of the mantle
Magnetic Field	The energy field created by the spinning of the inner and outer cores.
Proxima Centauri	Other than the Sun the next closest star to Earth, just over 4 lightyears away
4.567 Billion Years	age of the earth
13.7 Billion Years	age of the universe
Condensation Nuclei	solid surfaces around which a gas condenses
Parallax	the apparent shift of an object as seen from two different points that are not on a line with the object, way to determine the distance to a far away object.
Planetary Embryo	massive object in space, starting to clear orbit
Rotation	the spinning motion of a planet on its axis
Revolution	the movement of object in an orbit around another, such as Earth moving around the sun