Exam

Terms	Definitions
biological psychology	a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior
glial cells	supportive cells in the nervous system that guide growth of new neurons; form myelin sheaths; hold neurons in place; provide nourishment and removes waste from neurons
neuron	a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
soma	cell body of a neuron
dendrite	a short, branchlike structure of a neuron that receives information from receptors and other neurons
axon	the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons, muscles, or glands
axon terminals	structures located at the ends of the axon in which neurotransmitters are stored before release
Myelin sheath	fatty protein substance that covers some axons, increasing the speed of neurotransmission
action potential	a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon; generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane
synaptic vesicles	small pockets or sacs located in terminal buttons that contain a neurotransmitter
synapse	the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
neurotransmitters	chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons; stored in the terminal buttons; facilitate the transmission of information from one neuron to another
receptor sites	holes in the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and glands which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters
neural network	any network of neurons or nuclei that function together to perform some function in the body
nerves	neural "cables" containing many axons; connect the central nervous system with the muscles, glands, and sensory organs of the body
motor neurons	neurons that carry information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles; also known as efferent neurons
interneurons	central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
sensory neurons	neurons that carry information from the receptors to the spinal cord and brain; also known as afferent neurons
nervous system	the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
central nervous system	division of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system	the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
somatic nervous system	the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles; also called the skeletal nervous system
autonomic nervous system	division of the peripheral nervous system involved in the control of bodily functioning through organs and glands
sympathetic nervous system	subdivision of the autonomic nervous system responsible for mobilizing the body in times of stress, and preparing for flight or fight
parasympathetic nervous system	subdivision of the autonomic nervous system responsible for returning the body to a resting or balanced state and conserving energy
endocrine system	the body's "slow" chemical communication system; set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
adrenal glands	a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys responsible for releasing adrenaline into the bloodstream
pituitary gland	gland located below the thalamus and hypothalamus; called the "master gland" because it controls many other glands
electroencephalogram	an amplified recording of the waves of electrical device that monitors and records electric activity within the brain; also known as an EEG
positron emission tomography scan	imaging technique that involves monitoring the metabolic activity of the brain; also known as a PET scan
magnetic resonance imaging	a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain; also abbreviated as MRI
functional magnetic resonance imaging	a modification of the standard MRI procedure that allows both structural and functional images to be gathered; reveals blood blow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans; also abbreviated as fMRI
brainstem	the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; its major structures include the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; also known as the "hindbrain" or the "lower level structures"
reticular formation	band of nerve fibers that run through the center of the brain stem; important in controlling arousal levels
thalamus	the brain's "sensory switchboard", located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
cerebellum	the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating muscular movement output and balance
limbic system	a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food, water, and procreation; includes hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus
amygdala	two lima bean sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion
hypothalamus	a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion
cerebral cortex	the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information processing center
frontal lobe	the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
parietal lobe	the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body positions
occipital lobe	the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field
temporal lobe	the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear
motor cortex	a narrow vertical strip of cortex in the frontal lobe, lying just in front of the central fissure; controls voluntary movement
sensory cortex	the area at the front of the parietal lobe that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
association areas	areas or the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
Broca's area	an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Wernicke's area	an area deep in the left temporal lobe responsible for the ability to speak in meaningful sentences and to comprehend the meaning of speech
plasticity	the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in the brain reorganization following damage and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development
corpus callosum	the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them; this is nonexistent, damaged, or severed in split brain patients
split brain	a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers between them
stimulus	environmental occurrence that provokes a response
somatic division	division of the peripheral nervous system that consists of nerves coming from the receptors to the brain and spinal cord, as well as nerves that go from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles
reflex	automatic behavior in response to a specific stimulus; does not involve communication with the brain
homeostasis	metabolic equilibrium actively maintained by several complex biological mechanisms that operate via the autonomic nervous system to offset disrupting changes
pons	structure of the hindbrain that connects the two halves of the brain; has nuclei that are important for sleep and arousal
medulla	the base of the brainstem; located in the hindbrain; regulates automatic responses such as breathing, swallowing, and blood circulation
X-ray computed tomography scan	imaging technique that involves the production of a large number of X-rays interpreted by a computer; often abbreviated as CT scan
multiple sclerosis	a chronic progressive nervous disorder involving loss of Myelin sheath around certain nerve fibers
aphasia	impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or to Wernicke's area
reuptake	method of clearing a neurotransmitter from the synaptic cleft, in which the neurotransmitter is taken back into the axon terminals
agonist	chemical that enhances the operation of a neurotransmitter
antagonist	chemical that blocks the operation of a neurotransmitter
resting potential	electrical charge (negative) of a neuron when it is not firing
depolarization	process of neural firing; when action potential is generated and the neuron briefly takes on a positive charge
threshold	the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
refractory period	period, after firing, during which the neuron is unable to fire because it is repolarizing
dopamine	an inhibitory neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning and attention; overactivity of receptors linked to schizophrenia while an undersupply linked to Parkinson's disease
serotonin	an excitatory neurotransmitter involved in sleep, depression, and memory; an undersupply of this neurotransmitter is linked with depression
norepinephrine	an excitatory neurotransmitter that controls alertness and arousal; undersupply can depress mood; similar to adrenaline
GABA	an inhibitory neurotransmitter which moderates neuron firing; involved in movement and regulation of anxiety ; deficiency leads to seizures, tremors, and insomnia
acetylcholine	an inhibitory neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory; an undersupply is linked with Alzheimer's disease
glutamate	an excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory; oversupply can overstimulate brain, producing migraines or seizures
endorphins	opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure; considered "natural painkillers"; produced by the pituitary gland
hormones	chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another
lesion	brain destruction; can be naturally caused or created for experimentation
Phineas Gage	famous case study in neuroscience; sustained catastrophic damage to his frontal lobe; lead to theory that behavior was controlled by multiple lobe in the brain
phrenology	a now abandoned study of the shape of skull as indicative of the strengths of different faculties; was correct in its theory that behavior stems from different areas of the brain, but wrong about the correlation between the skull's shape and personality characteristics
thyroid gland	large gland in the front of the neck, it secretes hormones which regulate growth and metabolism
pineal gland	an endocrine gland located in the brain which produces melatonin, a chemical that affects wake/sleep patterns
pancreas	located partially behind the stomach in the abdomen; functions as both an endocrine and exocrine gland; produces digestive enzymes as well as insulin and glucagon