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prokaryotes single celled organisms eukaryotes multi celled organisms somatic cells diploid cells that form the organs, tissues, and other parts of an organism's body gametes sexual reproductive cells, ova and sperm, that have a haploid number of chromosomes and that can unite with a gamete of the opposite sex to form a new organism genome the complete set of chromosomes for an organism or species that represents all the inheritable traits complementary bases the predictable pairing of nitrogen bases in the structure of DNA and RNA, such that adenine and thymine always pair together and cytosine and guanine pair together mitochondria energy producing (ATP) organelles in eukaryotic cells; they possess their own independant DNA adenosine triphosphate (ATP) an important cellular molecule, created by the mitochondria and carrying the energy necessary for cellular functions. matriline DNA, such as mitochondrial DNA, whose inheritance can be traced from mother to daughter or to son. heteroplasmic refers to a mixture of more than one type or organellar DNA, such as mitrochondrial DNA, within a cell or a single organism's body, usually due to the mutation of the DNA in some organelles but not in others autosomes all chromosomes, except the sex chromosomes, that occur in pairs in all somatic cells (not the gametes) karyotype the characteristics of the chromosomes for an individual organism or a species, such as number, size, and type. sex chromsosomes the pair of chromosomes that determine and organisms biological sex partriline DNA who's inheritance can be traced from father to daughter or son, such as the Y chromosomes, which passes from father to son. diploid a cell that has a full complelment of paired chromosomes haploid a cell that has a single set of unpaired chromsosmes, half of the genetic material cross-over the process by which homologous chromosomes partially wrap around each other and exchange genetic information during meiosis recombination the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes, resulting from a cross-over event. haplotypes a group of alleles that tend to be inherited as a unit due to ttheir closely spaced loci on a single chromosome haplogroups a large set of haplotypes, such as the Y-chromosome or mitochondrial DNA, that may be ysed to define a population translocations rearrangements of chromosomes due to the insertion of genetic material from one chromosome to another nondisjunctions refers to the failure of the chromsomes to properly segreagte during meiosis, creating some gametes with abnormal numbers of chromosomes. monosomy refers to the condition in which only one of a specific pair of chromsosmes is present in a cell's nucleus. trisomy refers to the congition in which an additional chromosome exists with the hologous pair amino acids organic molecules combined in a specific sequence by the ribosomes to form a protein essential amino acids those amino acids that cannot be synthesized in the body; they must be supplied by the diet. structural proteins proteins that form an organisms physical attributes regulatory proteins proteins involved in the expression of control genes transcription the first step of protein synthesis, involving the creation or mRNA based on the DNA template translation the second step of a protein synthesis, involving the transfer of amino acids by tRNA to the ribosomes, which are then added to the protein chain. ribonucleic acid (RNA) a single-stranded molecule involved in protein synthesis, consisting of a phosphate, ribose sugar, and one of four nitrogen bases. urcail one of four nitrogen bases that make up RNA; it pairs with the adenine messenger RNA (mRNA) the molecules that are responsible for making a chemical copy of a gene needed for a specific protein, that is, for the transcription phase of protein synthesis. ribosomal RNA (rRNA) a fundamental structural component of a ribosome transfer (tRNA) the molecules that are responsible for tranporting amino acids to the ribosomes during protein synthesis. anticodons sequences of three nitrogen bases carried by tRNA, they match up with the complementary mRNA codons and each designate a specific amino acid druing protein synthesis triplets sequences of three nitrogen bases each in DNA, known as codons in mRNA. codons the seguences of three nitrogen bases carribed by mRNA that are coded to produce specific amino acids in protein synthesis. peptide bond chemical bond that joinds amino acids into a protein chain. polypeptide also knows as a protein. a chain of amino acids held together by multiple peptide bonds. coding DNA sequences of a gene's DNA that are coded to produce a specific protein and are transcribed and translated during protein synthesis noncoding DNA sequences of a gnee's DNA that are not coded to produce specific proteins and are excised before protein synthesis locus the location of an allele, or gene, on a chromosome polymorphism refers to the presence of two or more seperate phenotypes for a certain gene in the population law of segregation mendel's first law, which asserts that the two alleles for any given gene are inherited, one from each parent; during gemete production only one of the two alleles will be present in each ovum or sperm single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) variations in the DNA sequence due to the change of a single nitrogen base; also known as point mutations microsatellites specific loci in nuclear or organellar DNA that have repeated units of 1-4 base pairs in length; they can be used in various genetic studies. antigens substances, such as bacteria, forgein blood cells, and enzymes, that stimulate the immune system's antibody production antibodies molecules that form as part of the primary immune response to the prsence of foreign substances; they attach to the foreign antigens homozygous refers to the condition in which a pair of alleles at a single locus on homologous chromosomes are the same heterozygous refers to the condition in whicha pair of alleles at a single locus on homolgous chromosomes are different codominance refers to two different alleles that are equally dominant; both are fully expressed in a heterozygote's phenotype polygenic refers to one phenotypic trait that is affected by two or more genes heritability the proportion of pheotypic variating that is due to inheritance rather than to environmental influence. pleiotropy refers to one gene that affects more than one pheotypic trait What does the genetic code (DNA) do? DNA serves as the chemical template for itws own replication. DNA replication is the first step toward the production of new cells: somatic cells and gametes. DNA serves as the chemical template for the creation of proteins. What is the genetic structure of human variation? Each chromosome has a linear sequence of nucleotides that are coded to prodcue specific bodily structures and functions. These linear sequences are genes, and each gene has a particular locus on each chromsosome Each pair of homologous chromsosomes consists of a paternal chrosmosome and a maternal chromosome For most traits, no direct map yet exists for the translation of genotype to phenotype. Most physical characteristics are determined by more than one gene, and some can have multiple effects. What is the genetic code? The genetic code is DNA, packaged in individual chromosomes One type of DNA exists in the cell's nucleus, and the other type exists in the cytoplams. Hox genes are regualatory genes that control the development of body parts, such as limbs and internal organs, and their locations relative to each other. Seven Essential Amino Acids enzymes-catalyze chemical reactions Structural Proteins-Give structure or support to tissues Gas Transport Proteins-Carry vital gases to tissues Antibodies-Part of immune system Hormones-Regualte Metabolism Mechanical Proteins-Carry out specific funtions or work Nutrients-Provide vital nutrients to tissues What is the second function of DNA? to synthesize proteins, which are responsible for all the structures and functions of the body What are two steps of Protein Synthesis? Transcription (nucleus) and Translation (Cytoplasm)