Ch 7: Learning

Terms	Definitions
learning	a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
habituation	an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it
associative learning	learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning
classical conditioning	a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
behaviorism	the view that psychology: (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)
unconditioned response (UR)	in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth
unconditioned stimulus (US)	in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response
conditioned response (CR)	in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
conditioned stimulus (CS)	in classical conditioned, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response
acquisition	in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
higher-order conditioning	a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. (For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.) (Also called Second-Order Conditioning)
extinction	the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when a unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant condition when a response is no longer reinforced
spontaneous recovery	the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
generalization	the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit responses
discrimination	in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
learned helplessness	the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
respondent behavior	behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
operant conditioning	a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforce or diminished followed by a punisher
operant behavior	behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
law of effect	Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by faborable consequences become more like, that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
operant chamber	in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain food or water reinforce; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking
shaping	an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
discriminative stimulus	in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)
reinforce	in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
positive reinforcement	increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforce in any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
negative reinforcement	increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforce is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response (negative reinforcement is not punishment)
primary reinforce	an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
secondary reinforcer	a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforce
continuous reinforcement	reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
partial (intermittent) reinforcement	reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
fixed-ratio schedule	in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
variable-ratio schedule	in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
fixed-interval schedule	in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
variable-interval schedule	in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
punishment	an event that decreases the behavior that it follows
cognitive map	a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. (For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it)
latent learning	learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
intrinsic motivation	a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
extrinsic motivation	a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
observational learning	learning by observing others (also social learning)
modeling	the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
mirror neurons	frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's actions may enable imitation and empath
prosocial behavior	positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
little albert	subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles, especially the generalization of fear
Albert Bandura	researcher famous for work in observational or social learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment
John Garcia	Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.
Ivan Pavlov	Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs (1849-1936)
B.F. Skinner	pioneer of operant conditioning who believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments. he is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pidgeons and rats.
Edward Thorndike	Pioneer in operant conditioning who discovered concepts in intstrumental learning such as the law of effect. Known for his work with cats in puzzle boxes.
John Watson	behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat
observational learning	learning by observing others
aversion theory	Aversion therapy is a form of behavior therapy in which an aversive (causing a strong feeling of dislike or disgust) stimulus is paired with an undesirable behavior in order to reduce or eliminate that behavior.