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Simon de Bolivar Venezuelen-born general called "The Liberator" for his assistance in helping many South American countries win independence from Spain. Nicholas I Russian tsar who executed the leaders of the 1825 December Revolution and pursued an absolutist reign. decembrists russian army officers who were influenced by events in France and formed secret societies that espoused liberal governance. They were put down by Nicholas I in December of 1825. Congress of Vienna International conference to reorganize Europe after the downfall of Napoleon. European monarchies agreed to respect each other's borders and to cooperate in guarding against future revolutions and war. Restoration period European movement after the defeat of Napoleon to restore Europe to its pre-French revolutionary status and to prevent radical movements from arising. Greek Civil War conflict between Greek Christians and Muslim Ottomans. conservatism reactionary mode of thinking that held that tradition, including hereditary monarchy would dispel the divisive ideas of the Enlightenment. liberalism political and social theory that advocates representative government, free trade, and freedom of speech and religion. Adam Smith Scottish economist and philosopher who proposed that individual self-interest naturally promoted a healthy national economy. He became famous for his influential book, The Wealth of Nations. The Wealth of Nations 1776 treatise by Adam Smith, whose laissez-faire ideas predicted the economic boom of the Industrial Revolution. mercantilism A popular Western belief between 1600 and 1800 that a country's wealth and power was based on a favorable balance of trade (more exports and fewer imports) and the accumulation of precious metals. socialism political ideology that calls for a classless society with collective ownership of all poverty Karl Marx German philosopher and economist who believed that a revolution of the working classes would overthrow the capitalist order and create a classless society. Author of Das Kapital & the Communist Manifesto. Friedrich Engels German social and political philosopher who collaborated with Karl Marx on many publications Communist Manifesto Radical pamphlet by karl marx that predicted the downfall of the capitalist system and its replacement by a system that operated in the interests of the working class. radicals widely used term in the nineteenth century Europe that referred to those individuals and political organizations that favored the total reconfiguration of Europe's old state system. nationalism movement to unify a country based on a people's common history and social traditions. Romanticism beginning in germany and england in the late 18th century and continuing up to the end of the 19th century, a movement in art, music, and literature that countered the rationalism of the Enlightenment by stressing a highly emotional response to nature. Chartist movement mass democratic movement to pass the People's charter in Britain, granting male suffrage, secret ballot, equal electoral districts, and annual Parliaments, and absolving the requirement of property ownership for members of Parliament. People's Charter an action of the Chartist Movement between 1839-1848 over 3 million British signed this document calling for universal suffrage for adult males, the secret ballot, electoral districts, and annual parliamentary elections. French Revolution of 1830 The popular revolt against King Charles's July Ordinances of 1830, which dissolved the French Chamber of Deputies and restricted suffrage to exclude almost everyone except the nobility. After several days of violence, Charles abdicated the throne and was replaced by a constitutional monarch, King Louis Philippe. Frech Revolution of 1848 Brief uprising caused by economic grievances; it was violently quelled by the government. Utopian socialism the most visionary of all Restoration-era movements, dreamt of transforming states, workplaces, and human relations, and proposed actual plans to do so.