HALEY FINAL EXAM
About this set
Created by:
sarahanncampbell16 on May 30, 2009
Subjects:
Classes:
Historical Geography: Haley 4th Period, Ursuline Academy of Dallas (Class of 2016), Ursuline Academy Class Of 2014, Historical Geography: Haley 3
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490 terms
Latin | English |
|---|---|
| minoan |  name given to Crete; comes from King Minos, who ruled in Crete before Trojan War |
| mount olympus | highest mountain in Greece |
| Battle of Marathon | Darius sent Persian army to attack Athens; Athens defeated Persians; Pheidippides ran 26 miles with the good news |
| Greek Philosophy | organized systems of thought |
| Attica | 1,000 square mile promontory in southeast central Greece that formed the Athenian city-state; rugged terrain; marble, potter's clay, silver, lead |
| Corinth | leading city of ancient Greece famous for architecture, pottery, and shipbuilding |
| Thessaly | fertile region in northeastern Greece bounded by mountains, including Olympus |
| Athens | Greek city state; less violent than Sparta; more focus on learning and the arts |
| Sparta | Greek city state; war-favoring |
| Thebes | defeated by Alexander; allied with both Athens at Charonea, and Sparta |
| Alexandria | city at the heart of the Hellenstic world; trading thrived here, with a variety of goods like Greek marble, Arabian spices, and East African ivory; home to almost a million people; included an enormous lighthouse (Pharos) |
| Acropolis | "upper city"; common feature of Greek cities; an elevated site for religious observances |
| Agora | the open space that served as a civic center and market place |
| Amphora | two handled jar used for transport of wine, oil, dried fish, and other commodities |
| Aristocracy | "power of the best"; hereditary landowning nobility in charge of Greece |
| Arete | "virtue and excellence"; could be displayed on battlefield, or in athletic competitions |
| Asklepios | god of medicine with sanctuaries throughout the Greek world |
| Comedy | lighthearted play; contrast to tragedies; scenes filled with humor |
| Council of Elders | made up of 30 older citizens; they proposed laws on which the assembly voted |
| Council of Five Hundred | supervised foreign affairs; oversaw treasury; proposed laws to be voted on by assembly; members chosen by lot; democracy |
| Dark Ages | term for the roughly 200 year period in Greek history that followed the final collapse of the Mycenaean civilization in the 12th century B.C. |
| Democracy | "rule by the people"; originated in Athens in which political institutions were open to all male citizens, not being controlled by the wealthy few |
| Direct Democracy | citizens rule directly, not through representatives |
| Epic poem | long poem that tells the deeds of a great hero |
| Ephors | 5 men elected each year to be in charge of educating the youth |
| Gordian Knot | supposedly unsolvable knot that Alexander the Great slashed through with his sword |
| Hellenistic | "imitate Greeks"; Greek-speaking civilization that spread into eastern Mediterranean and beyond following the conquests of Alexander |
| Helots | peasants forced to stay on the land they worked |
| Hoplites | heavily armed Greek infantrymen who marched and fought in close ranks; middle-class citizens |
| Libation | ritual pouring of a liquid on an altar or on the ground to honor gods, heroes, dead; wine, water, milk, or honey |
| Linear B | modern name for the script (composed of signs and pictures) in which Mycenaean Greeks kept records on tablets of clay |
| Monarchy | leadership by one ruler |
| Oligarchy | "leadership of the few"; full exercise of power limited to the affluent; in 5th century B.C., Sparta was lead of oligarchy |
| Oracle | sacred shrine where a god or goddess revealed future through a priest(ess) |
| Ostracism | procedure used by Athenian assembly in 5th century B.C. to banish a citizen for 10 years without revoking their rights; 6,000 votes were needed for banishment |
| Ostrakon | broken piece of clay pottery used for writing; used to inscribe names of candidates for ostracism |
| Parthenon | sculpted by Phidias; beautiful building |
| Peplos | traditional garment of Greek women; sleeveless, ankle-length tunic of wool; pinned at shoulders and belted |
| Phalanx | battle formation 8 ranks deep; worked only on level ground |
| Polis | self-governing city-state; basic political unit; city = acropolis, agora, and surrounding territory |
| Age of Pericles | Pericles wanted to make Greece beautiful; age of beauty, focus on perfection; focus on the human form in perfection |
| rituals | ceremonies or rites |
| tragedies | first presented by Greek; presented in a trilogy; serious drama about common themes (love, hate, war, betrayal...) |
| tyrant | monarch; first appeared in 7th century B.C.; many ruled in a dictatorial manner |
| poseidon | god of the sea |
| Dionysus | god of wine and fertility |
| Dorians | spoke different dialect of Greek, far less advanced than Mycenaeans; economy collapsed, trade stopped; art of writing lost |
| Homer | blind poet, wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey |
| Solon | canceled land debts, outlawed debt slavery, created 4 social classes by wealth, any citizen could bring charges against wrongdoers |
| Pisistratus | gave land to peasants to gain favor of the poor |
| Cleisthenes | introduced reforms including: citizens grouped by location; council of 500; council members chosen by lot; limited democracy |
| Darius the Great | extended empire from Egypt to India and the Indus River; Persian king |
| Draco | created legal code, making rich equal to poor |
| King Darius III | lost to Alexander at Granicus River; was weak and satrapies often rebelled against him |
| Xerxes | Darius's son who defeated Greeks at Thermopylae |
| Pericles | wanted Athens to be beautiful and perfect |
| Socrates | was a sculptor; became a philosopher; created the Socratic method |
| Socratic Method | question and answer format that led others to discover things for themselves by using their own reason |
| Plato | student of Socrates; explained his ideas about government in a work entitled The Republic; people divided into 3 groups |
| Aristotle | student of Plato; did not accept Plato's theory of ideal forms; great philosopher |
| Pheidippides | ran 26 miles to deliver the news of the Greek victory at Thermopylae |
| Pindar | poet who was spared by Alexander when he conquered Thebes |
| Phidias | main sculptor of the Parthenon |
| Plutarch | Greek biographer; wrote Parallel Lives; Shakespeare drew on his accounts |
| Triremes | Greek warships |
| Thucydides | Athenian general who fought in Peloponnesian War; sent into exile; wrote History of the Peloponnesian War; non-biased |
| Herodotus | "father of history"; stressed research; wrote History of the Persian Wars; writing reflected his own views |
| Phillip II | father of Alexander the Great; Macedonian king; lived life of luxury |
| Alexander the Great | Son of Philip II; Macedonian king; solved Gordian knot; took two Persian wives; died at 33; left his kingdom to "the strongest" |
| Hephaestion | Alexander the Great's best friend and lover who died from a fever and alcohol consumption |
| Bucephalus | legendary horse of Alexander the Great |
| Erastosthenes | director of Alexandrian library who tried to calculate earth's true size; also a poet and historian |
| Euclid | geometry text; wrote Elements; best mathematician in Alexandria |
| Archimedes | explained law of the lever; invented screw to pull water out of the ground; invented pulley |
| Aristarchus | Greek scientist who estimated that the sun was at least 300 times larger than earth |
| Trojan War | 10 year war against Troy; Greek army destroyed Troy because a Trojan prince had kidnapped Helen |
| Great Peloponnesian War | war between Athens and the Athenian empire and the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta (with Thebes, Corinth, and other members) |
| Battle of Marathon | in 490 B.C., King Darius sent army to attack Athens; Athenians defeated them; Pheidippides ran 26 miles with the news |
| Battle of Thermopylae | Darius's son Xerxes attacked Greece; Spartans and Athenians joined together and were defeated |
| Battle of Salamis | victory at sea for Greeks; Greeks used triremes; Themistocles tricked Persians into narrow channel |
| Battle of Plataea | victory on land for Greeks; Persians defeated by Spartans; Persian leader Mardonius killed, everyone else fled |
| Battle of Chaeronea | brought all of Greece under Philip II's rule |
| Battle @ the Granicus River | Alexander's first victory against the Persians (key victory) |
| Iliad | written by Homer; model for Aenid; focus on Trojan War |
| Odyssey | written by Homer; epic poem of war hero; model for Aenid |
| History of the Persian War | written by Herodotus |
| History of the Peloponnesian War | written by Thucydides; unbiased view of the war |
| The Republic | Plato's most famous work; NOT democracy |
| Elements of Geometry | by Euclid; lots of proofs |
| Parallel Lives | by Plutarch; 46 biographies of Greek and Roman men with similar talents and careers |
| Sophocles | tragedy (Oedipus Rex and Antigone); wrote over 100 plays |
| Euripides | tragedy (The Trojan Women) |
| Aeschylus | tragedy (Orestia) |
| Aristophanes | comedy (Lysistrata and The Birds) |
| Corsica | Phoenician trading colony |
| Sicily | largest island of Mediterranean; colonized from 8th century BC by Greeks and Carthaginians, who warred over natives |
| Spain | Hannibal came from here to attack the Romans in a roundabout manner |
| Carthage | active in Punic Wars; home of Hannibal |
| Alps | mountain range which Hannibal traveled over to attack Rome |
| Aegean Sea | one of the bodies of water around Greece |
| Rubicon River | river crossed by Julius Caesar when the Senate asked him not to come home |
| aqueducts | bridge like structures that hold water pipes (built by Romans) |
| Republic | roman period from the overthrow of the monarchy (509 B.C.); form of government in which power is in the hands of the reps and leaders are elected by citizens with the right to vote |
| Civil War | war between two parties within a single country/city-state |
| Consuls | chief executive officials of Roman Republic; 2 elected to position; chosen from the senate; one year terms |
| Patricians | wealthy Roman landowners |
| Plebeians | lower class in Rome; usually small farmers |
| Tribune | protected rights of plebeians from unfair act of patrician officials |
| Praetors | second to consuls; primarily judges; at least 39 years old |
| Quaestors | public finance and record officials (like a treasurer); at least 25 years old |
| Censors | always drawn from ranks of Senates; supervisory power of their fellow senators |
| Senate | leading governmental body in Rome; made up of patricians, had lots of power |
| Triumvirate | government ruled by 3 individuals |
| Dictator | supreme commander; usually chief official under a state of emergency and military law; one ruler in charge; takes rule by force |
| mercenaries | soldiers paid to fight in a foreign army |
| Legion | 5,000-6,000 heavily armed foot soldiers |
| Paterfamilias | male dominance in the family |
| Imperator | "imperium"; power of command |
| Inflation | rapid increase of prices; caused Diocletian to issue the Edict of Maximum Prices and Wages |
| Insulae | overcrowded apartment blocks |
| Pater Patria | means "the Father of his country;" the title Cicero (and later Augustus) was given by the Senate |
| Pontifex Maximus | high priest of Rome; head of Roman state religion; appointed and oversaw vestal virgins |
| Plague | epidemic disease - may have wiped out one tenth of Rome's population |
| Praetorian Guard | emperor's personal guards |
| Punic Wars | Carthage vs. Rome; determined that Rome, not Carthage would control the Mediterranean world |
| New Testament | second half of the Bible; focuses on the teachings of Jesus |
| Clergy | body of officials who perform religious services |
| Laity | all the unordained Church |
| Anti-Semitism | prejudice and hostility against Jews |
| Martyr | one who dies for their faith |
| Apostle | Jesus' 13 disciples/followers |
| Diaspora | mass persecution of the Jews |
| Praetorian Guard | the emperor's personal guards |
| Latifundia | plantation owner's home |
| Satires | humorous writings; poking fun at serious matters; Horace |
| Veni, Vidi, Vici | "I came, I saw, I conquered" (Latin) |
| Bread and Circuses | Caesar promised this to people if they elected him |
| Pantheon | famous Roman building; destroyed by fire, rebuilt, later became Christian church |
| Romance Languages | European languages descended from Latin; French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish |
| Latin League | confederation of Latin cities neighboring Rome; each held equal rights; Rome conquered them |
| Edict of Maximum Prices and Wages | set wages and price controls for the entire empire; it failed |
| Edict of Milan | issued by Contstantine; official tolerance of Christianity |
| "by this sign" (IHS) | image of a cross, seen by Constantine during the Battle at Milvian Bridge in which he prayed for divine help; this sign appeared to him |
| Atilla | leader of the Huns |
| Romulus | founder of Rome; twin of Remus; raised by she-wolf; killed Remus |
| Remus | twin of Romulus; raised by she-wolf; was killed by Romulus because he taunted Romulus |
| Etruscans | taught Romans the art of building arch constructions called vaults; came into Italy about 750 B.C.; established small city-states in northern and central areas of the peninsula |
| Greeks | settled in southern Italy and Sicily between 750 and 600 B.C.; overcrowding had caused them to leave their homes and settle in foreign places |
| Latins | migrated into Italy around 800 B.C., settled along the Tiber River; built the original settlement at Rome atop Palatine Hill |
| Hannibal | Carthaginian general; military genius; greatest victory was at Cannae; beat at Zama by Scipio |
| Hamilcar Barca | Hannibal's father; general in Carthage; made Hannibal swear to hate Rome |
| Scipio | Hannibal's match; Roman general; defeated Hannibal at Zama in the Punic Wars |
| Tiberius Gracchus | brother of Gaius; believed in poor; killed for his beliefs |
| Gaius Gracchus | brother of Tiberius; believed in poor; killed for his beliefs |
| Marius | general/consul; promised land to recruit poor; army not under control of the government |
| Lucius Cornelius Sulla | won civil war with Marius; reign of terror; later restored power to Senate; used army as a tool |
| Crassus | richest man in Rome; first triumvirate |
| Pompey | first triumvirate; general/military hero from command in Spain |
| Julius Casear | in first triumvirate; killed republic; dictator; many hates; Augustus's father; "bread and circuses", assassinated by Senate |
| Mark Antony | second triumvirate; general; Caesar's ally; friends with Cleopatra; ruled East/Egypt |
| Octavian | first Roman emperor; imperator; public buildings; civil services; Caesar's son |
| Marcus Brutus | leading senator, Caesar's best friend; assassinated Caesar |
| Queen Cleopatra | relationships with Caesar and Antony; Queen of Egypt; thought to have committed suicide |
| Lepidus | second triumvirate; weakest link; commander of Caesar's calvary; ruled Africa |
| Caesarion | son of Caesar and Cleopatra |
| Virgil | greatest poet of the Golden Age, called the "Homer of Rome" because the Iliad and the Odyssey served as models for his epic, the Aeneid; focus on Patriotism; it took 10 years to write |
| Livy | History of Rome; moral lessons; simplicity |
| Horace | wrote funny tidbits; wrote Satires |
| Cicero | orator; intellect; put to death for outshining Antony and Octavian |
| Tacitus | Roman historian who presented facts accurately; wrote Annals and Histories |
| Jesus | "chosen one"; founder of Christianity |
| Simon Peter | Jesus' disciple |
| Apostle Paul | instrumental gospel-spreader; made journeys to spread Christianity |
| Marcus Agrippa | general who built the Pantheon |
| Huns | nomadic people of central Asia; cavalry men; led by Attila |
| Visigoths | pressured by the Huns; crossed Danube River; Captured in Rome in 410 |
| Vandals | came from near Germany, across Rhine river; combined force of Romans and Visigoths |
| Vestal Virgins | an ancient line of priestesses of the goddess of the hearth, Vesta; entered at 6-10 years old; served for 30 years; then could marry |
| Battle of Cannae | Hannibal encircled Romans; beat force at least three times bigger than his own; greatest victory |
| Battle of Zama | Hannibal was finally beat; fled to save his life |
| Battle of Actium | Octavian beat Antony/Cleopatra; Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide soon after |
| Battle at Milvian Bridge | Constantine was victorious in battle due to divine help of the Christian God |
| Tiberius | first of the "Mad Monarchs"; conflicts with family; became a tyrant; poor judgment |
| Caligula | bald; elected his horse to Senate; "little boots", 4 year reign; schizophrenic; spent money lavishly; was assassinated |
| Claudius | disabled; seizures; stutter; socially awkward; gambler; drinker; women |
| Nero | nephew of Caligula; killed everyone; disguised himself to go out and murder people; blamed Christians; committed suicide |
| Domitian | loner; paranoid; wrote book about baldness; was assassinated |
| Nerva | reformed laws in favor of the poor; good emperor |
| Trajan | expanded empire; public works like canals, bridges, roads; good emperor |
| Hadrian | build Hadrian wall; codified Roman law; good emperor |
| Antonius Pius | art and science focus; made legal reforms; created an orphanage; good emperor |
| Marcus Aurelias | helped unify the empire economically; made legal reforms; wrote Meditations; good emperor |
| Constantine | brought Christianity to the empire; harsh taxes; Battle at Milvian Bridge; issued Edict of Milan; became first Christian emperor; established power in Byzantium, which became Constantinople |
| Diocletian | issued Edict of Maximum Prices and wages; divided into four sections; enlarged civil/military forces |
| The Aeneid | written by Virgil; "Homer of Rome"; focus on patriotism |
| Savannas | broad grasslands dotted with small trees and shrubs; covered 40% of Africa's land |
| Plateaus | a usually extensive land area having a relatively level surface raised sharply above adjacent land on at least one side; Kush kingdom located near one |
| Maghrib | the part of North Africa that is today the Mediterranean coast of Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco |
| Meroe | capital of Kushite kingdom |
| Gao | chief trade center and capital of Songhai; located near Timbuktu |
| Adulis | Aksum's chief seaport; crowded with lots of activity from various merchants; near present-day Massawa |
| Mombasa | forts built by Portuguese on sites of Kilwa and this city |
| Mogadishu | trading city in northern Africa |
| Tumbuktu | one of the most famous trading cities of the empire (had several mosques and universities) |
| Kilwa | was burned by Portuguese during conquests; forts built on either side of this city and Mombasa; its Muslim rulers and merchants were admired by Ibn Battuta; they slept in beds inlaid with ivory and meals served on porcelain |
| Sofala | taken during the Portuguese conquests |
| Mild Climate | stretches across the northern coast and southern tip of Africa; moderate rainfall with warm temperatures; densely populated with farmers and herders; fertile land |
| Desert Climate | Sahara and Kalahari; temps can reach 130 degrees; cover about 40% of Africa |
| Rainforest Climate | stretches along equator; about 9-10% of continent; heavy rain, warm temps, dense forests; little farming or travel possible; canopy; Tsetse fly |
| Savanna Climate | broad grasslands dotted with small trees and shrubs; stretch across Africa both north and south of the rain forest and covers 40% of Africa's land area; some rainfall allows for farming and animal herding; mountainous highlands and swampy stretches; most African people live here |
| mansa | king |
| floretines | possible name of the coins of the european middle ages |
| doubloons | another possible name of the coins of the European Middle Ages |
| ghana | "war chief"; ruler as named by the Soninke |
| animism | belief in spiritual aspects |
| christianity | belief in Christ |
| islam | belief in the prophet Muhammad; Muslims; one true God |
| proto-bantu | the single parent tongue from which all a family of languages developed |
| migration | the movement of people or animals from one place to another |
| push-pull factors | anything that pushes people out of an area or pulls them into an area |
| lineage | organized family groups; usually members feel strong loyalties to each other |
| Patrilineal societies | lineages traced through father's side of the family |
| Matrilineal Societies | lineages traced through mother's side of the family |
| Subsistence farming | growing just enough crops for personal use, not for sale |
| Slash and Burn Farming | agricultural technique in which farmers cut down trees for open pastures for planting or grazing |
| Terrace Farming | creating step-like ridges constructed on mountain slopes which helped the soil retain water and prevented it from being washed downhill in heavy rains |
| Stateless Societies | when lineage groups take the place of rulers |
| tsetse fly | fly inhabiting the rain forests of Africa; toxic |
| Desertification | the steady process of drying of the soil |
| griots | royal historians who memorize and pass on the history of ancestors and their time; passed down the story of the founding of Mali |
| silent trade | method of trading in which people placed their goods on the ground, then walked away and beat drums to signify other groups that the trade was ready |
| King Ezana | Axumite ruler, invaded and conquered Kush around A.D. 350; burned Meroe to the ground; made Christianity official religion of Aksum |
| Sundiata Keita | mansa of Mali; established new trading society in West Africa; strong government; built wealth off Gold and Salt trade; military victories; popular in peacetime |
| Mansa Musa | may have been Sundiata's grandnephew; doubled size of kingdom of Mali; created strong government; made famous pilgrimage to Mecca (lavish journey) |
| Sunni Ali | created Sunni Dynasty; rule lasted 30 years; many military campaigns/victories; conquered Timbuktu and Djenne, which gave Songhai control of trade; focus on trading empire |
| Askia Muhammad | Songhai empire reached its height during his reign; devout Muslim; military commander; overthrow the son of Sunni Ali; created a new dynasty (Askia); expanded empire; maintained peace; appointed ministers; kept trade |
| Efe | group of hunter-gatherers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo; small groups (10-100 members); temporary homes; women are gatherers; men are hunters; older male serves as group leader without giving direct orders |
| Nok | West Africa's earliest known culture; lived in what is now Nigeria; between 500 B.C. and A.D. 200; first people known to smelt iron; fashioned iron into tools for farming and weapons for hunting |
| Berbers | fierce independent mountain/desert dwellers; original inhabitants of North Africa; two united (Almoravids and Almohads) |
| Benin People | a kingdom that arose near the Niger River delta in the 1300s and became a major West African state in the 1400s. |
| Mecca | the holiest city of Islam; Muhammad's birthplace; Muslims face this city in their daily prayers |
| Medina | the second holiest city of Islam; where Muhammad lived after fleeing Mecca |
| Jerusalem | Jewish/Christian/Muslim holy site; site of the Wailing Wall; only remaining portion of Solomon's temple |
| Damascus | capital was moved to this city from Medina by Muawiyah so he could be more fully in charge |
| Baghdad | city located on the Tigris River; new capital city of the Abbasids in 762; capital city of Iraq; as heart of the Arab Empire, it was second only to Constantinople in terms of size and grandeur in 1000 C.E. |
| Cairo | capital of Egypt; capital of the Fatmid Dynasty |
| Arabian Peninsula | Arabs from here founded the colony that became Aksum; is now Yemen; base of Muslim empires |
| Faith | (Shahaada): there is no god worthy of worship except Allah and Muhammad is his messenger. This is a simple formula pronounced by all the faithful. |
| Prayer | (Salaah): the name for the obligatory prayers which are performed five times a day, and are a direct link between the worshipper and God. There I sno hierarchical authority in Islam, and no priests, so prayers are led by a learned person who knows the Quran and is chosen by the congregation. The five prayers contain verses from the Quran and are said in Arabic, the language of the Revelation, but personal supplication may be offered in one's own language. |
| Charity | (Zakaah): one of the most important principles of Islam; all things belong to God, and wealth is therefore held by humans in trust. It means both purification and growth. Our possessions are purified by setting aside a proportion for those in need. Each calculates their own zakat personally; for most, it involves the payment of two and half percent of one's capital. |
| Fasting | (Siyaam): every year in Ramadan, all Muslims fast from first light until sundown, abstaining from food, drink, and sexual relations; those who are sick, elderly, or women who are pregnant or nursing are permitted to break the fast and make up an equal number of days later in the year. If they are physically unable to do this, they must feed a needy person for every day missed. Children fast from puberty. Fasting is regarded principally as a method of self purification and enhancement of spiritual life. |
| Pilgrimage | (Hajj) : this annual pilgrimage to Mecca is an obligation for those who are physically and financially able to perform it. About two million people go to Mecca every year. The annual Hajj begins in the 12th month of the Islamic year (which is lunar, not solar). Pilgrims wear special clothes - simple garments which strip away distinctions of class and culture so that all stand equal before Allah. Rites include circling the Kaaba seven times, and going seven times between the mountains of Safa and Marwa as did Hagar during her search for water. Then the pilgrims stand on the wide plain of Arafat and join in prayers for God's forgiveness. The close of the Hajj is marked by a festival, the Eid al-Adha, which is celebrated with prayers and exchanging of gifts in Muslim communities everywhere. |
| Minaret | used by the muezzin to call people to prayer; a tall, towerlike structure |
| Sahn | open courtyard |
| Ayatollah | a Shiite who is learned in the Shariah, the Koran, and the Hadith; and is known for their piety |
| Arabesque | Islamic art/geometric patterns that are repeated over and over |
| Assalumu Alaykum | a greeting meaning "peace" Muslims use to meet each other |
| Astrolabe | an instrument used by sailors to determine their location by observing the position of the stars and planets |
| bazaar | a covered market |
| bedouin | wondering/nomadic Arab tribes |
| Caliph | the title of the successor to Muhammad |
| Chador | long black robe worn by Iranian women |
| Fatihah | the first chapter of the Quran, which asks God for guidance to follow the "straight path", and is repeated by Muslims five times a day |
| Hadith | the literal translation means "story"; traditional teachings based on Muhammad's words and actions; these traditions are traced to eyewitness accounts |
| Hajj | pilgrimate to Mecca; one of the Five Pillars of Islam |
| Harem | separate women's quarters in a traditional Muslim home |
| Hijrah | Muhammad's flight from Mecca to Medina in A.D. 622; marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar |
| Iblis | the name for Satan in the Quran; like the devil in Christian theology, he tempts humans and seeks to thwart God's divine purpose in history |
| Imam | Muslim prayer leader |
| Iman | word meaning faith |
| Islam | the religion practiced by Muslims; means "submission to the will of God." |
| Jihad | the obligation of Muslims to struggle or exert themselves in the way of God; doesn't necessarily mean an armed struggle |
| Kaaba | a cube/shrine in Mecca; Muhammad cleansed it of idols |
| Madrasas | Islamic schools |
| Majlis | council of Muslim men |
| Mihrab | an alcove in a mosque that points toward Mecca |
| Monotheistic | believing in one God |
| Mosque | the building used by Muslims for religious services |
| Mount Hira | where Muhammad received his first revelation |
| Muskaad | separate men's quarters in a traditional Muslim home |
| Nabi | prophet |
| Oasis | fertile or green area within a desert |
| Polygamy | a marriage between a man and more than one woman; is seen as an exception, not a rule, within Islam |
| Proselytizing | trying to convert someone else to your religions |
| Purdah | the traditional Middle Eastern custom of seclusion for women |
| Koran (Quran) | the name for the holy book of Islam, meaning "recital" |
| Ramadan | 9th month of Muslim calendar; marked by fasting |
| Shariah | Muslim law code |
| Sheikh | Arab leader or chief |
| Sultan | a title that means "holder of power"/Turkish leader |
| Sunna | hadith; a report or collection of sayings attributed to the prophet and members of the early Muslim community; second only to Quran; a vital element during first three centuries of Islamic history, and its study gives a broad index into the philosophy of Islam |
| Sura | a chapter of the Quran; means "fence" or "enclosure"; there are 114 in the Quran, arranged in the order of descending length |
| Tawid | the oneness or singularity of God; to reject it is to reject Islam |
| Wailing Wall | last standing portion of Solomon's temple in Jerusalem |
| Wudu | ritual cleansing of oneself before prayer by Muslims |
| Vizier | a prime minister that advises the caliph |
| Ummah | the worldwide community of Muslim believers |
| Umayyad Dynasty | initiated by Muawiyah; set up a hereditary system of succession (proved fateful, because the caliph was no longer elected); capital moved to Damascus; office of caliph became more powerful; notoriously secular lifestyles; favored Arabs in areas of taxation, social status, and religion |
| Abbasid Dynasty | descent from Abbas, the uncle of Muhammad (more acceptable to Shi'ites than Umayyad); opened the faith to ALL "comers" on equal basis; enabled Islam to become a true world religion; empire became too large and people too diverse; new capital finally built at Baghdad |
| Fatimid Dynasty | formed by Shiite Muslims; named after Muhammad's daughter; began in North Africa and spread across the Red Sea to western Arabia and Syria; capital at Cairo |
| Allah | the one true God of the Muslims; spoke through prophet Muhammad |
| Gabriel | told Muhammad to "recite", and Muhammad refused to act on these revelations three times; later told him "recite in the name of thy Lord who created" - beginning of Muhammad's preaching |
| Khadija | Muhammad's wife; wealthy widow; had 6 children with Muhammad; was a successful business woman |
| Muhammad | the founder of the Islam religion; to Muslims, the ultimate and final prophet; died at age 62 in 632; born in 570; received messages from Gabriel |
| Fatima | best known child of Muhammad and Khadija; Fatimid Dynasty named after her |
| Muslims | those who practice the religion of Islam; believe in one God, and the prophet Muhammad whom they believe God spoke through |
| Muawiyah | governor of Syria; initiated the Umayyad Dynasty; one of Ali's chief rivals; outstanding virtue of using violence only when absolutely necessary |
| Abu Bakr | voted as the "best qualified" person to inherit Muhammad's role of leadership; he was closest to the prophet and best represented his teachings; was succeeded by Umar |
| Umar | the real founder of the early Muslim Empire; his armies pushed deep into North Africa; invated Persia and Byzantine; ruled for 10 years; saw stunning rapid expansion, which was halted by civil war |
| Uthman | helped expand Muslim territory; caliph |
| Sunni | the majority group of Muslims; 87-89% of believers worldwide; do not believe in the necessity of a descendant of Muhammad as a leader |
| Shiite | the minority of Muslims; "followers"; follow the authority of the prophet's son-in-law Ali and his descendants, and believe that Ali was the divinely appointed successor to Muhammad; divine line of Muhammad's descendants should rule in their opinion |
| Sufi | group that rejected the luxurious lifestyle of the Umayyads; pursued a life of poverty and devotion to a spiritual path |
| Ali | helped expand Muslim territory; husband of Fatima; Muhammad's son-in-law; last "orthodox" caliph; was assassinated |
| Kharijites | rejected the caliphs because they disallowed any form of dynastic succession, believing that only a Muslim free of all sin was fit to lead; frequently fought against the ruler of the majority and caliphs |
| Harun al-Rashid | fifth Abbasid caliph; he and his court at Baghdad are immortalized in The Thousand and One Nights; great patron of art and learning and splendor |
| Ibn-Rushd | lived in Cordoba; had same goal as Greek philosophy-to find the truth |
| Moses Ben Maimon (Maimonides) | Jewish philosopher; physician/philosopher; born in Cordoba and lived in Egypt; wrote The Guide for the Perplexed, which blended philosophy, religion, and science |
| Al-Khawarizimi | mathematician born in Baghdad in late 700s; wrote a textbook explaining the "art of bringing together unknowns to match a quantity"; al-jabr - today known as algebra. |
| Ibn Sina | Persian philosopher, astronomer, poet, and physician; wrote book The Cure, which was an interpretation of Aristotle's philosophy |
| al-Razi | Persian scholar; greatest physician of the Muslim world; wrote an encyclopedia called the Comprehensive Book that drew on knowledge from many cultures; wrote Treatise on Smallpox and Measles, which was translated into several languages |
| Ibn al-Haytham | brilliant mathematician; produced a book called Optics that revolutionized ideas about vision; people see cause rays pass from objects to eyes |
| Omar Khayyam | wrote the Rubaiyat (a collection of poems describing the poet's love of life's pleasures); created a more accurate calendar for the sultan Malik Shah |
| Tigris | one of the two main rivers in Mesopotamia (now modern Iraq) |
| Euphrates | one of two main rivers in ancient Mesopotamia (now modern Iraq and eastern Turkey) |
| Kuwait | kingdom on the southern border of Iraq; occupied by Iraq in 1990; founded on June 19, 1961; one of the richest oil producing nations in the world |
| Baghdad | capital city of Iraq; as heart of the Arab Empire, it was second only to Constantinople in terms of size and grandeur in 1000 C.E. |
| Basra | city in southern Iraq; heart of Shiite territory |
| al-Faw | a peninsula on the Iraqui Persian Gulf coast, where the offshore oil terminals are located; scene of heavy fighting during the Iran/Iraq War |
| Bahrain | located in the Persian Gulf between Saudi Arabia and the Qatar Peninsula; contains many artesian wells; artifacts found there = first credit cards; first son inherits everything after death of father here; pearling was important here for years; oil business important, but other sources of income have developed in preparation of oil fields drying up |
| Afghanistan | located in south central Asia; landlocked; half its area consists of high plateaus and mountains that separate the rich northern provinces from the deserts and plains of the south; cold winters and hot summers; Afghan hound and Persian cat; gold mines |
| Iran | Now the Islamic Republic of Iran, it borders Iraq to the east; population mostly Persian, with Kurd and Arab minorities; majority are Shiite Muslims; nation of plateaus and mountains; has 7 neighboring countries and 3 bodies of water (Turkemenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia|Caspian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Gulf of Oman); used to be known as Persia; originally founded by Cyrus the Great; Islamic country; origination of polo |
| Iraq | Republic of Iraq; Country created in 1923 by a European convention, from the Ottoman provinces of Baghdad and Basra; mostly Arabs, with a Kurd minority |
| Terrorism | the practice of waging war on civilian populations by nonmilitary forces |
| Republican Guard | Iraqi troops, recruited from the Sunni ruling elites who were personally loyal to Saddam Huessein; the elite fighting force in the Iraqi army |
| Mother of All Battles | Saddam Hussein's name for the 100-hour ground war during Operation Desert Storm; Saddam portrays the battle as an Iraqi victory |
| OPEC | Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries; oil rich countries control a significant portion of the world's oil; Iraq is a member of OPEC |
| Operation Desert Shield | Military build-up of Arab-Western coalition troops in Saudi Arabia in 1990 and 1991 |
| Operation Desert Storm | military operations that started on January 16, 1991, with a bombing campaign, followed by a ground invasion of February 23 and 24, 1991. The ground war lasted 100 hours and resulted in a spectacularly one-sided military victory for the Coalition. |
| Weapons of Mass Destruction | chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons; these are capable of destroying enormous numbers of people and vast areas, hence the name; Saddam Hussein used weapons of mass destruction on the Iranian army during the Iran-Iraq War and on the Kurds in 1988 |
| primogeniture | oldest son inheriting everything |
| Wergild | a fine, the amount paid by the wrongdoer to the family of the person he or she had injured or killed; translates as "money for man" |
| Ordeal | means of determining guilt in Germanic law; it was based on the idea of divine intervention; all involved a physical trial of some sort (like red hot irons) |
| Monks | men who separate themselves from ordinary human society in order to pursue a life of total dedication to God |
| Nuns | females who dedicate their lives to God; they avoid things of the world |
| Monasticism | the practice of living life as a monk |
| Monastery/Convent | location of monks/nuns |
| Missionary | person sent out to carry a religious message; also focus on converting non-Christians to Christianity |
| Abbot | head of a monastery |
| Abbess | head of a convent |
| Heresy | word denying the truth about God |
| Clergy | body of officials who perform religious services |
| Pope | leader of the Catholic Church |
| Excommunication | most severe penalty for refusing to obey Church laws; included the denial of burying rights and rights to the sacred sacraments |
| Schism | a separation between the two branches of Christianity |
| Sacraments | sacred rituals of the Church; an outward sign of an inward grace |
| Carolingian Empire | three key leaders; Pepin, Charles Martel, Charlemagne |
| Mayors of the Palace (Major domo) | chief officers of the king's household (Pepin gained kingship through this position) |
| Missi dominici | special officers who checked up on the counts and others and reported directly to the king under Charlemagne's rule |
| office of comes | office of counts; representatives of the king in the provinces; under the rule of Charlemagne |
| Guilds | business associations that dominated medieval towns; they passed laws, levied taxes, built protective walls for the city, etc. Each represented workers in one occupation such as weavers, bakers, brewers, sword makers, etc. |
| Apprentice | a trainee in a particular trade; a long process that youngsters went through to obtain membership in a guild (around 7 or 8 years of age) |
| Feudalism | a political system and a social system whereby a powerful lord would offer "protection" in return for "service" |
| Estates | another term for "classes" of people [1. Clergy 2. Nobles 3. Townspeople and peasants] |
| Manor | lord's estate |
| Lords | owners of big estates |
| Vassals | "lesser lords" who pledged their service and loyalty to a greater lord in a military capacity |
| Knights | a mounted warrior who had great prestige in the Middle Ages; they dominated warfare in Europe [went through training: page, squire, knight] |
| Serfs | peasants on a manor; they were bound to the land; they were not slaves who could be bought and sold, but were not free |
| Fief | an estate; from a few acres to hundreds of square miles; also included the peasants that worked on the land |
| Feudal Contract | an unwritten set of rules that determined the relationship between a lord and his vassal; the major obligation was to perform military service (40 days a year) |
| Chivalry | a code that knights adopted in the late Middle Ages; requiring them to be brave, loyal, and true to their word; they had to fight fairly in battle; required loyalty to the heavenly Lord, their earthly lord, and a lady. |
| Trencher | a thick slab of coarse bread used by a household to place their meat on |
| Minstrels | told funny stories, recited poetry, sang songs; traveled from court to court; brought news and gossip |
| Troubadours | wandering poets; love songs focused on cherishing and protecting women |
| Lay Investiture | the practice by which secular (lay/un-ordained) rulers appointed church officials |
| Interdict | popes consider this to be their "spiritual weapon"; it was the punishment faced if one violated Church laws; excluded an entire town, region, or kingdom from participating in most sacraments and from receiving a Christian burial |
| Inquisition | the Church's method of discovering and dealing with heretics; a procedure for punishing heretics to root out both religious and political dissenters; punishment varied (included burning at the stake) |
| Concordat of Worms | terms: the Church alone could appoint a bishop, but the emperor could veto the appointment; compromise created by the successors of Gregory VII and Henry IV in the German city of Worms |
| Canon Law | the Church's own body of laws; this law applied to religious teachings, the behavior of the clergy, and even marriages and morals |
| Secular | worldly; associated with the world |
| Tithes | taxes equal to 1/10th of a person's income; idea existed in ancient religions before Christianity; used to help the poor |
| Treaty of Verdun | document dividing the land between Charlemagne's three feuding grandsons |
| Common Law | law that was common to the whole kingdom; began to replace law codes that varied from place to place |
| Magna Carta | a written document that gave recognition to the relationship between kings and vassals |
| motte and bailey castle | castles constructed on top of an earthen mound, with a wooden-fenced stockade encircling the wooden fort |
| Motte | an earthen mound on top of which early castles were constructed |
| Moat | channel of water surrounding a castle; during battle it could be filled with oil and set on fire |
| drawbridge | a heavy wooden bridge that could be raised and lowered to allow entrance over the moat to the castle |
| Stockade | made of wood, had a little walkway for shooting arrows, encircled bailey |
| Keep | highest point of the castle; most secure Lord's quarters |
| Parapet | wall with slits for arrows |
| Ventiliation Slits | small slits in the side of a castle that could be used to shoot arrows |
| Portcullis | iron grille that can be raised and lowered at the entrance to a castle |
| Holy Roman Empire | first called this by Frederick I; the German-Italian empire Otto I created by joining a monarch with the Church |
| Drakken | ships used by the Vikings to raid and plunder villages; were intimidating; could hold lots of men |
| Visigoths | Germanic invaders who overran the western half of the Roman Empire |
| Ostrogoths | Germanic invaders who overran the western half of the Roman Empire |
| Franks | ruled by Clovis; held power in the Roman province of Gaul (which is today France and Switzerland) |
| Lombards | Germanic people who had settled in northern Italy and were pushing south, threatening Rome; crushed by Charlemagne, earning him the papacy's gratitude |
| Burgundians | Germanic invaders who overran the western half of the Roman Empire |
| Muslims | believers of Islam; beat in the Battle of Tours; major component in the battle for the Holy Land (Crusades) |
| Magyars | attacked Western Europe from the east; superb horsemen; swept across the plains of the Danube River and invaded western Europe in the late 800s; they targeted villages and monasteries |
| Anglo-Saxon | Germanic tribe; raids on Britain; drove |
| Clovis | ruler of the Franks; brought Christianity to Franks; united Franks into one kingdom |
| Gregory I | "Gregory the Great"; broadened the authority of the papacy, or pope's office, beyond spiritual role; papacy became secular power involved in politics |
| St. Benedict | lived in the Sabine hills as a hermit; wrote a book describing rules for monastic life; emphasized balance between work and study |
| Scholastica | twin sister of Benedict; devoted her life to the Church, was probably the abbess of a convent near Benedict's monastery |
| Charles Martel | father of Pepin; Frankish leader that fought in the Battle of Tours against the Muslims on Oct. 10, 732 |
| Pepin | was a major domo who assumed the kingship of the Frankish state for himself; left the Frankish kingdom to his two songs, Carloman and Charles |
| Charlemagne | ruled from 768 - 814; conquered new lands; spread Christianity; expanded Frankish kingdom; created Carollingian Empire; Christian emperor; visited all parts of his kingdom; promoted learning; opened a palace school; friends with key individuals like Pope Leo III; crowned his only surviving son Louis the Pious as emperor a year before he died |
| Alcuin | Anglo-Saxon monk of great ability; a key teacher in Charlemagne's court |
| Louis the Pious | the only surviving son of Charlemagne who inherited Charlemagne's empire; was unfit for the job; had three sons: Charles [France], Lothair [midlands between France and Germany], and Louis [Germany]. |
| Lothair | inherited midlands between France and Germany reaching down into Italy |
| Charles the Bald | inherited France |
| Pope Leo III | Charlemagne's coronation |
| Eleanor of Aquitaine | beautiful queen; rich; lots of land; Crusader; Queen of France; raised her own army and went to the Holy Land; married Henry II |
| Edward the Confessor | took the throne in 1042, died in 1066 without an heir |
| William of Normandy | duke of Normandy; known as William the Conqueror; rival was Harold Godwinson; fought in the Battle of Hastings |
| King Harold Godwinson | rival of William of Normandy; fought the Battle of Hastings, in which he was killed by an arrow |
| Henry II | married Eleanor of Aquitaine; expanded king's power; clashed with Archbishop Thomas Becket; big struggle with Church; wanted to be rid of Becket |
| King John | was the son of Henry II; clever, greedy, cruel, untrustworthy; enemies = Philip II, Innocent III, his own English nobles; imposed heavy taxes on nobles; signed the Magna Carta (Great Charter) |
| Pope Innocent III | clashed with King John and won; Church reached height of political power under his papacy; believed pope was the supreme judge of all European affairs; used interdicts |
| Archbishop Thomas Becket | nemesis of King Henry II; murdered by four knights in his own cathedral; martyr and saint |
| Edward I | ruler when the Great Council was the advice-giver of the kingdom (eventually became parliament); "What touches all, should be approved by all" |
| Otto I | most effective ruler of medieval Germany; crowned king in 936; formed close alliance with the Church; sought help from the clergy; crowned emperor in 962, joining monarch's power with that of the Church; created the Roman Empire of the German Nation (Holy Roman Empire) |
| Frederick I | first to call the lands the Holy Roman Empire; elected king; strong personality; great military skills; a few enemies (Italian merchants and pope), who formed the Lombard League against him; made peace with pope; drowned in 1190 |
| King Henry IV | young German leader; clashed with Pope Gregory VII [struggle known as Investiture Controversy] |
| Pope Gregory VII | clashed with Henry IV over Investiture Controversy |
| Hugh Capet | elected as king by feudal nobles; established Capetian Dynasty of French kings |
| Capetian Dynasty | slowly increased royal power; made throne hereditary; unbroken successions for 300 years; added land; support of Church and townspeople; effective bureaucracy |
| Philip II | Augustus from Latin word "majestic"; French King; powerful Capetian; king at age 15; added territories to the kingdom, tripling it in size |
| Louis VII | king of France; Eleanor's husband; their marriage was later annulled |
| St. Francis of Assisi | Italian saint who founded the Franciscan order of friars; treated all creatures, including animals, as spiritual brothers and sisters; born to wealthy merchant family and willingly gave up a life of comfort |
| St. Dominic de Guzman | founded the Dominicans; stressed missionary work among common people; active in preaching and fighting heresy |
| Hidegard of Bingen | nun/abbess in western Germany; composer |
| Battle of Tours | Franks vs. Muslims; Franks won; Oct. 10, 732; stopped the advance of Islam and preserved Christianity as the controlling faith in Europe |
| Battle of Hastings | OCTOBER 14, 1066; William of Normandy vs. Harold Godwinson; Harold killed by an arrow; Normans won; Norman culture dramatically changed Saxon tradition; French words blended with Anglo-Saxon language; Feudal system in England; increased power of the English monarch |
| Lombard League | alliance of the Italian merchants and pope against Frederick I; foot soldiers faced Frederick's mounted knights; foot soldiers with crossbows defeated knights |
| Battle of Legnano | Lombard League vs. Frederick; alliance of the Italian merchants and pope against Frederick I; foot soldiers faced Frederick's mounted knights; foot soldiers with crossbows defeated knights |
| Cistercians | strict, ate simple meals, had one robe; took message outside the monastery to many people |
| Franciscans | founded by St. Francis; order stressed vows of poverty and gentleness to all creatures |
| Dominicans | founded by St. Dominic de Guzman; vows of poverty; stressed missionary work; preached gospel and fought heresy |
| The Song of Roland | most famous medieval poem; praises a band of French soldiers who perished in battle during Charlemagne's reign |
| Simony | bishops buying their way into office |
| Crusades | military expeditions to gain (regain) the Holy Land from the Muslims (from 11th to the 13th centuries) |
| Peasant Crusade | mobs of peasants, aroused by fiery preaching, killed and pillaged on their journey to Jerusalem |
| First Crusade | led by Frankish nobles, included 3000 knights on horseback and 12,000 infantrymen; army fought its way from Constantinople into Jerusalem and slaughtered Muslim, Jewish, and Christian inhabitants; crusaders seized the Holy Land |
| Second Crusade | in 1147, effort to stem the Muslim resurgence; UNSUCCESSFUL; Jerusalem was taken by Saladin (Muslim) |
| Third Crusade | 1189, FAILED; strong monarchs (Philip II of France; Frederick I of Germany; Richard the Lion-Hearted of England); Philip argued with Richard and went home; Frederick drowned; Richard led Crusaders; Richard head-t0-head with Saladin; truce Jerusalem still under Muslim control, but Christians could visit |
| Fourth Crusade | initiated by Pope Innocent III six or seven years after Saladin's death; crusaders attacked Constantinople and set up their own government; Byzantine Empire restored by 1261 but never fully recovered from the fourth crusade |
| Infidels | nonbelievers |
| Great Schism | the separation between the two branches of Christianity |
| Inquisition | attempted to find, try, and sentence those people guilty of heresy; inquisitors set up a central location and issued an order that all guilty must go confess; those who came forward and confessed had milder penalties than those who didn't; torture was acceptable for those who were suspected of lying; proving oneself innocent was nearly impossible |
| The Black Death | by 1348, this disease ravaged from Italy, Spain, and France to the rest of Europe; transmitted by fleas on rats; considered an epidemic; one in three people died; spread from Asia to middle east; people turned to witchcraft for cures; some beat themselves because they considered the disease God's punishment; Christians blamed Jews; production declined; higher wages; inflation |
| Black Rats | carries of the fleas that carried the Black Death |
| Epidemic | outbreak of a rapid-spreading disease, such as the Black Death |
| The Hundred Years' War | the English believed themselves the equals of their French lords and did not want to be seen as servants of the French Crown; when Edward III of England claimed the throne of France because he had blood ties to the Capetians through his mother, the French did not accept his claim; Edward III took his army to France in 1337, beginning the series of wars; in 1415 the English soldiers defeated a large French army at Agincourt, reclaiming Normandy for England |
| Longbow | powerful weapon; 6 feet long; essential to the victory of the English in the Hundred Years' War; longbow could shoot three arrows in the time a French archer could shoot one; pierced all but the heaviest armor |
| Cannons | powerful weapons in the Hundred Years' War; helped French capture English-held castles; instrumental in Normandy |
| Guilds | business associations that dominated medieval towns; they passed laws, levied taxes, built protective walls for the city, etc. Each represented workers in one occupation such as weavers, bakers, brewers, sword makers, etc. |
| Apprentice | a trainee in a particular trade; a long process that youngsters went through to obtain membership in a guild (around 7 or 8 years of age) |
| Journeyman | second stage of Guild/trade |
| Master | the third and final stage of a guild/trade |
| Three-Field System | farmers could grow crops on two-thirds of their land each year, not just half of it; production of more food; well-fed people, who could resist disease and live longer |
| Commercial Revolution | expansion of business and trade together; cloth was the most common trade item; others included bacon, salt, honey, cheese, wine, leather, knives, and ropes; "letters of credit" invented; "bills of exchange" established. |
| Money Economy | letters of credit and bills of exchange contributed to the expansion of business and banking; bills of exchange established exchange rates between different coinage systems |
| Verncular | the everyday language of one's homeland; was used by some poets at Universities |
| Scholastics | serious scholars who met at universities consistently to expand their knowledge |
| Byzantine | basic; 6th century; built in eastern Europe under the eastern orthodox Church; large dome in the middle; four massive pillars to support the dome; low light (somber); clergy was hardly seen; no organs; no large masses; more individual worship |
| Romanesque | 11th and 12th centuries; roman influences; mostly built around a holy site or relics; initially, they had flat wooden roofs, which were a fire hazard and prone to fall so they were then created from stone; later, went to a long rounded roof called the Barrel Vault, which created a wider and higher ceiling; because of stone roof, walls were thick; massive pillars; looked like castles; windows were very small; dark inside |
| Gothic | detailed; 12th century; innovation of spires (top parts or points that tapered upward - like a steeple); ribbed vaults which allowed for things to be spread out further; pointed arches associated with the idea of moving up toward heaven; flying buttresses spread the church wider, and thinner walls; more windows; stained glass |
| Emperor Alexis I | emperor of the Roman empire at the time of the first crusade |
| Saladin | led the Muslim army in the Second and Third Crusades; finally granted unarmed Christians the privilege to visit Jerusalem in a truce |
| Pope Urban II | used his papal power to urge lords and knights to become Crusaders to fight the Muslims and regain the Middle East for Christianity; promised: forgiveness for sins, freedom from debt, a choice of fiefs in the lands to be conquered |
| Pope Innocent III | initiated the Fourth Crusade |
| Charles VII | King of France who was asked by Joan of Arc for an army to save the city of Orleans; doubted her, but gave her soldiers |
| Joan of Arc | simple, illiterate girl who had visions and believed she heard voices o saints calling on her to rid France of the English soldiers; asked Charles for an army to save Orleans, and received her request; was captured by English; accused of witchcraft, and burned at the stake in 1431; later declared as a saint by the Church; inspired national spirit and pride |
| Thomas Aquinas | scholar who argued that the most basic religious truths could be proved by logical argument; greatest work = Summa Theologicae (influenced by Aristotle); later became a saint |
| Battle of Crecy | Edward's troops crushed the French in 1346 at this battle |
| Battle of Agincourt | with this battle, English took back Normandy [from the French] in 1415 |
| Battle of Orleans | Joan asked for an army to save this city; she led it there; it was the beginning of France's courage to face the English and win the Hundred Years' War |
| Normandy | William the Conqueror's home; French region that the English wanted to control; was finally regained by England at the Battle of Agincourt |
| Constantinople | Capital of the Byzantine Empire |
| Holy Land | area that the Crusades were fought over |
| Venice | prosperous city during the Commercial Revolution |
| Flanders | important market for English wool and it was the center of trading |
| paris | universities arose in this city (capital of France) |
| Bologna | universities arose in this city |
| Summa Theologicae | written by Thomas Aquinas; influenced by Aristotle |
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