Research and Statistics
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108 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 Empiricism | We learn information about the world by observing whether it is true |
| Scientific Method | Set of rules for answering questions about the natural world Infinite number of ways to answer questions Way to evaluate Encourages creativity |
| Lawful | Can be understood in terms of cause and event |
| Determined | If the cause occurs, the behavior is produced Can't be altered by "free will" |
| Understandable | Either can understand it or will eventually be able to Not "unknowable" |
| Research Design | Empirical, objective, systematic, controlled |
| Objectivity | Scores free of bias Concrete definitions of what you will and will not accept ahead of time |
| Controlled | Everything must be the same for each participant besides the variable |
| Confound | Differences |
| Goals of Research | Describe- what was observed Explain- reasons for what was seen Predict- tell how people will react in future conditions Control- use learned knowledge to cause behavior or affect it |
| Pseudo-explanations | Circular reasoning |
| Basic Research | Done specifically to gain more knowledge |
| Applied Research | Done to solve existing problems |
| Hypothesis | Formal stated prediction about how the world works Explains expected outcome of single study Educated guess Can be wrong |
| Studies should be... | Testable, falsifiable, precise, rational, parsimonious (simple as possible) |
| Theories | Integrated proposals for how many behaviors work |
| Models | Simplified theory for how a particular behavior works |
| Literal/ Direct Replication | Duplicate a previous study exactly |
| Conceptual Replication | Tests hypothesis |
| Population | All people that the laws of behavior we discover should apply to Infinite number of participants in most cases |
| Sample | Subset of population Rare cases sample is population |
| Representative Sample | Sample in which the characteristics or behavior of the sample math the characteristics or behavior of the target population |
| Random Sampling | Tend to give representative sample All members of population has an equal chance to be selected |
| Hypothetical Construct | Abstract concept used in a particular theoretical manner to relate different behaviors according to their underlying features or causes Can't directly be measured Used to describe, organize, summarize, or communicate our interpretations of behaviors |
| Variables | Any measurable aspect of behavior or influence on behavior that can change |
| Operational Definition | Defines a construct or variable in terms of the operations used to measure it Particular way variables are manipulated or measured |
| Relationship | If Y is influenced by X (or both are influenced by something), then different amounts of Y should occur when there are certain amounts of X |
| Strength of Relationship | Tells us whether the relationship is influential enough to be seen despite all this variation |
| Descriptive Statistics | Procedures for organizing and summarizing scores so that we can describe and communicate important characteristics of the sample data |
| Inferential Statistics | Use samples to make conclusions about the population |
| Flow of Research | Broad and abstract to narrow and and concrete and then back to broad and abstract |
| Descriptive Research Method | No manipulation or control Ask questions or observe Can't assume causation but can see if things are associated with one another or just see what happens High external validity, less internal validity |
| Independent Variable | Directly manipulated by the experimenter Each has a different condition/level |
| Condition/Level | Amounts or categories Can be quantitative or qualitative |
| Quasi-experiment | Factors that cannot be randomly assigned by an experimenter |
| Dependent Variable | Reflect some aspect of participants or their behavior Can be physical data or judgements |
| Intervening Variables | Internal characteristic that is influenced by the independent variable and then affects the dependent variable |
| Extraneous Variables | Influence our results that we don't wish to study Can be environmental, systematic, or unsystematic |
| Systematic Changes | Consistent pattern Can alter relationship |
| Unsystematic Changes | No consistent pattern Increase variability and decrease strength of relationship |
| Participant Variables | Individual differences |
| Environmental Variables | Temperature, lighting, time of day |
| Researcher Variables | Being watched can change behavior |
| Measurement Variables | Variables about the stimuli presented or behaviors focused upon |
| Reliability | Degree to which the same event or behavior produces the same score each time it is measured Laws of nature are stable- Good manipulations and measures and minimize extraneous variables, should find reliable results |
| Validity | Extent to which a procedure measures what it is supposed to measure |
| Content Validity | Degree to which measurements reflect variable of interest Can lack reliability Extraneous variables can decrease it |
| Construct Validity | Degree to which measurement reflects the hypothetical construct of interest |
| Internal Validity | Degree to which a relationship found in a study reflects only the relationship between the variables of interest |
| Confounding Variable | Extraneous variable that changes systematically along with the variable of interest |
| External Validity | Degree to which the relationship found in the study generalizes to other situations and individuals |
| Ecological Validity | Degree to which a study's results generalize to natural settings and situations Subsection of external validity |
| Direct Replications | Gives reliability, content validity, and probably internal validity |
| Conceptual Replications | Gives external, construct, and internal validity |
| 3 Ways to Control Extraneous Variables | Eliminate them Keep constant Balance them **Can't control them all |
| Field Experiments | Experiments in natural settings Higher external validity and lower internal validity |
| With-in Subjects Design | Each person experiences all levels of the independent variable Can lead to order effects |
| Between-Subjects Design | Each person is tested under only one level of the independent variable |
| Strong Manipulations | Conditions likely to produce large changes in behavior and large changes in the dependent variable |
| Sensitive Measure | Produces different scores for small changes in behavior |
| Restricted Range | Range of possible scores is limited |
| Ceiling Effect | All scores are high and can't increase |
| Floor Effect | All scores are low and can't decrease |
| Multiple Trials | Can increase reliability and possibly validity |
| Open Ended Trials | Single trial with great sensitivity Not very reliable Good at avoiding ceiling affect and restrictive range |
| Orders Effects | Influences on a particular trial due to its position in a sequence of trials |
| Practice Effects | Influence on performance that comes from practicing a specific task Better or worse |
| Carryover Effects | Influence of one trial affecting subsequent trials |
| Response Set | Bias towards responding in a particular way because of previous response made |
| Counterbalancing | Systematically changing the order of trials for different participants in a balanced way to counter the bias caused by a single order |
| Automation | Use electronic/mechanical devices to present stimuli and measure/record responses |
| Pilot Study | Miniature version of a study that tests the procedure before the actual study |
| Demand Characteristic | Extraneous cue that guides or biases a participant's behavior |
| Reactivity | Bias in responses that occurs because people are aware they are being observed |
| Hawthorne Effect | Influence due to the novelty of being in a study |
| Social Desirability | People want to behave in a socially acceptable manner |
| Experimenter Expectancies | Cues the experimenter provides about the responses participants should give in particular conditions |
| Single Blind | Participants are unaware of the independent variable and the level they were given |
| Double Blind | Participants and experimenter are not aware of the level of the independent variable the participant is in |
| Habituation | Familiarize the participants with unfamiliar situation so it seems less unusual |
| Experimental Realism | Participants are to engaged with the task to experience many demand characteristics |
| Unobtrusive Measures | Measure behavior without the participants being aware |
| Deception | Creation of a false artificial situation that disguises a study |
| 3 R's of Animal Research | Reduction- reduce the number of animals needed to gather data Refinement- reduce pain/distress of research animals Replacement- use non-animals or lower animals to do research |
| Observational Studies | People are observed in an unobtrusive manner |
| Naturalistic Observation | Researcher examines participants' behavior in an unsystematic way No guide on what to look for Any and all behaviors can be counted |
| Systematic Naturalistic Observation | Researcher Observes a behavior systematically Looking for a particular behavior General idea or what behaviors and patterns there are |
| Participant Observation | Researcher is a member of the group being observed |
| Inter-rater Reliability | Degree to which raters agree on the scores they assign to a participant's behavior Agreement or correlation |
| Field Survey | Participants complete a questionnaire or interview in a natural setting, in person, by mail or over the phone |
| Simple Random Sampling | All people in the population have an equal chance of being selected No bias |
| Systematic Random Sampling | Every nth person is chosen |
| Stratified Random Sampling | Participants are randomly selected proportionately from the subgroups in the population |
| Cluster Sampling | Groups is randomly selected from a number of groups and then everyone in that group is sampled |
| Probability Sampling | Relies on random sampling |
| Nonprobability Sampling | Does not rely on random sampling |
| Convenience Sampling | Study participants who are conveniently available |
| Quota Sampling | Population is proportionally sampled with subgroups but subgroups are filled with a convenience sample rather than a random sample |
| Snowball Sampling | Potential participants are identified by other participants |
| Close-ended Questions | Researcher provides the alternatives from which the participant selects Reliable and objective scores Less information given |
| Open-ended Questions | Participants chooses both the alternatives to choose from and the response Answers aren't limited so new variables or information can be discovered Hard to score reliably and objectively |
| Content Analysis | Number of times a word or concept comes up |
| Structured Interview | Participants are asked specific, predetermined questions in a controlled manner |
| Unstructured Interview | Participants are asked questions based on some theme or topic, but questions can vary Less reliability and validity |
| Double-barreled Questions | Question with more than one components- people could agree with one component but not others |
| Leading Questions | Questions that communicate social desirability or experimenter expectancies |
| Barnum Statements | Question so global or vague that everyone would agree with them |
| Response Scale | Number and type of choices to provide for a question More options are better |
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