| Term | Definition |
|---|
| Science | a particular way of knowing which based on empirical evidence and systematic observation. |
| Natural scientists | study biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy etc. |
| Social scientists | study social and psychological phenomena that involve human beings. |
| Goals of Science | Prediction, Explanation, Understanding, Control |
| Explanation | why something occurs the way it does; Explanations place the phenomenon to be explained into a broader framework or pattern that doesn't really require much additional elaboration. |
| Understanding | has to do with knowing the particular sequence of causal events. |
| Control | exerting a particular effect or causing a specific outcome based on manipulation of relevant variables; When scientists can predict, explain and understand social phenomena, they can better control them |
| How are the goals of science achieved?: Theory: | -A theory consists of more than one statement or axiom. -The statements identify the key concepts of the theory and specify how they are related. -They yield hypotheses that are testable by observation. -Hypotheses must be testable and falsifiable |
| Nature of Social Science | -Science is general -Science assumes a skeptical attitude -Science cannot answer certain kinds of question |
| Survey: Random Sample of Population | If random: Has to be representative in order for findings to be generalizable |
| Survey: Importance of survey design | -Open vs. closed-ended questions -Self-reported data (may not know or remember) -Social desirability bias (ie lie about profile?) |
| Guidelines to survey design | -Make questions clear and short -Avoid "double-barreled" questions -Avoid biased terms or words -Avoid leading questions -Don't ask about highly detailed information -Don't ask potentially embarrassing questions unless necessary |
| Advantages of Surveys | -Can address a wide range of questions/issues -Can collect information from a lot of people -If done properly, results can be projected to entire population (i.e., they are generalizable) -They can be cost effective (e.g., they can be conducted with little to no traveling) |
| Disadvantages of Surveys | -Participants unable to recall accurately. -Prestige or social desirability bias -Participants may lie -Participants try to figure out what survey is about -Participants may not know own feelings, beliefs, etc. -Can't go into depth -Need to know what to ask! -Difficult to establish causality -Response rate is often a problem |
| Types of surveys: Cross-sectional | one sample, one pt in time |
| Types of surveys: longitudinal survey | needed when more than one sample taken at diff points in time) to assess trends over time |
| Longitudinal Survey: Trend study | 8th grade students each year |
| Longitudinal Survey: Cohort | study specific population as it changes over time |
| Longitudinal Survey: Panel | the same sample of respondents is measured at diff pts in time |
| Content Analysis | Descriptive; cannot determine causality or effects |
| Content Analysis is | -Objective: should be able to reanalyze data and come to same conclusion -Systematic (rules ensure inter-coder reliability) -Quantitative (counting, numbers, statistics) |
| Causation: Three criteria | -Two variables need to be empirically related to one another -Time-order (cause has to precede effect) -Third-variable explanations must be eliminated |
| Three pillars of every true experiment: Manipulation | Manipulate one or more independent variables (Treatment group vs. control group) |
| Three pillars of every true experiment: Randomization | Random assignment: otherwise will not be able to identify cause of any differences between groups |
| Three pillars of every true experiment: Control | Involves control of third variables (also called (nuisance/ confounding variables) |
| Double Blind Experiment | neither the individuals nor the researchers know who belongs to the control group and the experimental group. Only after all the data have been recorded (and in some cases, analyzed) do the researchers learn which individuals are which. |
| Hawthorne effect | subjects improve an aspect of their behavior being experimentally measured simply in response to the fact that they are being studied |
| Screw-you effect | When a participant is in an experiment you may not get accurate results because they are aware of the experiment and in turn go out of their way to do everything wrong or go against everything u ask them to. |
| Placebo effect | a sham medical intervention intended to lead the recipient to believe that the intervention may improve his/her condition. |
| Experimental method: Advantages | -The best method to demonstrate causality (not just correlation) -High level of control -Can be cost-effective (in laboratory) -Easy to replicate |
| Experimental method: Disadvantages | -Issues of generalizability (artificiality) or external validity -Cannot examine too many variables at the same time -Not all variables can be manipulated |
| Qualitative research methods | -Interviews -Focus groups -Ethnographic observation |
| Poll | an inquiry into public opinion conducted by interviewing a random sample of people |
| Focus Group | a form of qualitative research in which a group of people are asked about their attitude towards a product, service, concept, advertisement, idea, or packaging. Questions are asked in an interactive group setting where participants are free to talk with other group members. |
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