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Aaron Beck: 1921-present; Field: cognitive; Contributions: father of Cognitive Therapy, created Beck Scales-depression inventory, hopelessness scale, suicidal ideation, anxiety inventory, and youth inventories
Abraham Maslow: 1908-1970; Field: humanism; Contributions: hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level nees have to be met-at the top-self-actualization
Albert Bandura: 1925-present; Field: sociocultural; Contributions: observational learning. Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated ‘appropriate’ play with dolls, children mimicked play
Albert Ellis: 1913-2007; Field: cognitive-behavioral; Contributions: Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET), focuses on altering client’s patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotions
Alfred Adler: 1870-1937; Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: basic mistakes, style of life, inferiority/superiority complexes Studies: Birth Order
Alfred Binet: 1857-1911; Field: testing; Contributions: IQ tests, test to identify slow learners in need of remediation-not applicable in the U.S. because too culture-bound (French)
Alzheimer's disease: a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning
Anna Freud: 1895-1982; Field: psychoanalysis; Contributions: focused on child psychoanalysis, fully developed defense mechanisms, emphasized importance of the ego and its constant struggle
BF Skinner: 1904-1990; Field: behavioral; Contributions: operant conditioning-learning based on rewards and punishments. Studies: Skinner box
Benjamin Whorf: 1897-1941; Field: language; Contributions: language determines the way we think
Broca's area: in frontal lobe- repsonsible for language formation (speaking)
Carl Jung: 1875-1961; Field: neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; Contributions: people had conscious and unconscious awareness; archetypes; collective unconscious; libido is all types of energy, not just sexual; Studies: dream studies/interpretation
Carl Rogers: 1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: person-centered therapy, emphasized the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard
Carol Gilligan: 1936-pres; Field: cognition; Contributions: maintained that Köhlberg’s work was developed by only observing boys and overlooked girls who focus more on relationships than laws and principles
Charles Darwin: 1809-1882; Field: geology, biology; Contributions: natural selection, evolution Studies: “The Origin of Species” catalogs his voyage on the Beagle
Charles Spearman: 1863-1945; Field: intelligence; Contributions: specific mental talents were highly correlated, general "g" factor for intelligence
Clark Hull: 1884-1952; Field: motivation; Contributions: maintains that the goal of all motivated behavior is the reduction or alleviation of a drive state, mechanism through which reinforcement operates
Conditioned stimulus: learned stimulus (stimulus that was once the NS is now the CS)
Daniel Goleman: 1946-present; Field: intelligence; Contributions: emotional intelligence
David McClelland: 1917-1998; Field: intelligence, testing; Contributions: devised a way to measure Murray’s theory (TAT), developed scoring system for TAT’s use in assessing achievement motivation, not the TAT
David Rosenhan: dates?; Field: social psychology; Contributions: proved that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, your care would not be very good in a mental health setting; Studies: Hospital experiment-checked into hospital to check diagnosis
David Weschler: 1896-1981; Field: testing; Contributions: best known intelligence test (WAIS)
Edward Thorndike: 1874-1949; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: Law of Effect-relationship between behavior and consequence; Studies: Law of Effect
Elizabeth Kübler-Ross: 1926-2004; Field: development; Contributions: 5 stages of death (denial, anger, bargaining with God, depression, acceptance)
Elizabeth Loftus: 1944-present; Field: memory; Contributions: eyewitness testimony (false memories or misinformation effect); Studies: Reconstruction of Auto destruction
Erik Erikson: 1902-1994; Field: neo-Freudian, humanistic; Contributions: 8-stage theory -show how people evolve through the life span. Each stage marked by “Who am I?”
Ernst Weber: 1795-1878; Field: perception; Contributions: just-noticeable-difference (JND) that eventually becomes Weber’s law; Studies: 1st study on JND
Francis Galton: 1822-1911; Field: differential psychology; Contributions: behavioral genetics, maintains that personality & ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance; human traits are inherited Studies: & “Law of Errors”-differences in intellectual ability
Gordon Allport: 1897-1967; Field: trait theory of personality; Contributions: list of 11,000 traits, 3 levels of traits-cardinal, central, and secondary
Gustav Fechner: 1801-1887; Field: perception; Contributions: stated that the magnitude of a sensory experience is proportionate to the # of JND’s that the stimulus causing the experiences above the absolute threshold
HJ Eysenck: 1916-1997; Field: personality; Contributions: asserted that personality is largely determined by genes, used introversion/extroversion
Harry Harlow: 1905-1981; Field: development; Contributions: realized that touch is preferred in development; Studies: monkeys, studied attachment (wire mothers v. cloth mothers)
Harry Stack Sullivan: 1892-1949; Field: psychoanalysis; Contributions: groundwork for enmeshed relationships, developed the Self-System-a configuration of personality traits
Henry Murray: 1893-1988; Field: intelligence, testing; Contributions: devised Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Hermann Ebbinghaus: 1850-1909; Field: memory; Contributions: :forgetting curve-a rapid loss followed by a gradual declining rate of loss; Studies: memory-series of meaningless syllables/words
Hermann Rorschach: 1884-1922; Field: personality, psychoanalysis; Contributions: projective test, (Inkblot test)
Howard Gardner: 1943-present; Field: intelligence; Contributions: multiple intelligences (logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic)
Ivan Pavlov: 1891-1951; Field: behavior; Contributions: classical conditioning, a UCS naturally elicits a reflexive behavior; Studies: dog salivation
Jean Piaget: 1896-1980; Field: cognition; Contributions: created a 4-stage of children's cognitive development, schemas, theory of mind, assimilation and accommodation
John B Watson: 1878-1958; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: generalization-inductive reasoning Studies: Little Albert
Judith Langlois: dates ?; Field: developmental; Contributions: social development & processing, effects of appearance on behavior, origin of social stereotypes, sex/love/intimacy, facial expression
Karen Horney: 1885-1952; Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses
Karl Wernicke: 1848-1905; Field: perception; Contributions: temporal lobe -language understanding; Studies: person damaged in this area uses correct words but they do not make sense
Kenneth Clark: 1914-2005; Field: social psychology; Contributions: research evidence of internalized racism Studies: Doll experiments-black children chose white dolls
Kurt Lewin: 1890-1947; Field: social psychology; Contributions: German refugee who escaped Nazis, proved the democratic style of leadership is the most productive; Studies: Leadership syles-studied effects of 3 leadership styles on children completing activities
LSD: hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid
Lawrence Köhlberg: 1927-1987; Field: cognition, moral development; Contributions: 6 stages of moral development (pre-conventional-rewards/punishments, conventional-social acceptance/law or against law, post-conventional-higher sense of morality
Learning: process by which humans and animals acquire behavior patterns; experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior
Lev Vygotsky: 1896-1934; Field: child development; Contributions: how culture & interpersonal communication guide development, zone of proximal development; play research
Lewis Terman: 1877-1956; Field: intelligence; Contributions: revised Binet’s IQ test
Little Albert: ca. 1920; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: subject in John Watson’s experiment, proved classical conditioning principles: Studies: Little Albert-generalization of fear
Martin Seligman: 1942-present; Field: learning; Contributions: Positive Psychology, learned helplessness; Studies: Dogs demonstrating learned helplessness
Mary Ainsworth: 1913-1999; Field: development; Contributions: compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; Studies: The Strange Situation-observation of parent/child attachment
Mary Cover-Jones: 1896-1987; Field: learning; Contributions: systematic desensitization, maintained that fear could be unlearned
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests; originally developed to identify emotional disorders, this test is now used for many other screening purposes
Noam Chomsky: 1928-present; Field: language; Contributions: disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language
Oedipus complex: Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father
Paul Ekman: 1934-present; Field: emotion; Contributions: facial expressions are universal
Philip Zimbardo: 1933-present; Field: social psychology; Contributions: proved that peoples behavior depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play; Studies: Stanford Prison Study-studied power of social roles to influence people’s behavior
Phineas Gage: 1823-1860; Field: neurobiology; Contributions: 1st person to have a frontal lobotomy (by accident)
REM: Rapid Eye Movement-dreaming. REM periods get longer as the night goes on. Nightmares
REM rebound: tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
REM sleep: rapid eye movement sleep, recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur
Raymond Cattell: 1905-1998; Field: intelligence; Contributions: fluid & crystal intelligence; 3 domains of personality sphere (personality, ability, & motivation), 16 Personality Factors (personality test)
Robert Rosenthal: 1933-present; Field: social psychology; Contributions: nonverbal communication, self-fulfilling prophecies; Studies: Pygmalion Effect-effect of teacher’s expectations on students
Robert Sternberg: 1949-present; Field: intelligence; Contributions: devised Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (creative, analytical, practical)
Robert Yerkes: 187601956; Field: intelligence, comparative; Contributions: social behavior of gorillas/chimps, Yerkes-Dodson law-level of arousal as related to performance
Robert Zajonc: 1923-present; Field: motivation; Contributions: believes that we invent explanations to label feelings
Rorshach inkblot test: the most widely used projective test,10 inkblots, Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
Shaping: rewarding successive approximations towards the right response
Sigmund Freud: 1856-1939; Field: psychoanalytic, personality; Contributions: id/ego/superego, reality and pleasure principles, ego ideal, defense mechanisms (expanded by Anna Freud), psychoanalysis, transference
Solomon Asch: 1907-1996; Field: social psychology; Contributions: studied conformity, found that individuals would conform even if they knew it was wrong; Studies: conformity, opinions and social pressures
Stage 1 of sleep: Hypnogogic sensations, alpha waves, feelings of falling
Stage 2 of sleep: sleep spindles-bursts of activity
Stage 3 and 4: slow wave delta waves
Stage 4 of sleep: night terrors, delta waves, sleep walking
Stanley Milgram: 1933-1984; Field: social psychology; Contributions: obedience study-wanted to see how far individuals would go to be obedient; Studies: Shock Study
Stanley Schachter: 1922-present; Field: emotion; Contributions: 2 factor theory-physiological happens first, cognitive appraisal must be made in order to experience emotion.
THC: major active ingredient in marijuana
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): a people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
Unconditioned response: unlearned or natural response
Unconditioned stimulus: stimulus that causes a natural response (loud noise-scares us)
Walter B. Cannon: 1871-1945; Field: motivation; Contributions: gastric activity as in empty stomach, is sole basis for hunger; Studies: balloons in stomachs
Wernicke's area: in temporal lobe- repsonsible for comprehension-understanding
William James: 1842-1910; Field: functionalism; Contributions: Famous Book "Principles of Psychology"
William Sheldon: 1898-1977; Field: personality; Contributions: theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by genetic endowment: endomorphic (large), mesomorphic (average), and ectomorphic (skinny)
William Wundt: 1832-1920; Field: structuralism, voluntarism; Contributions: introspection Studies: 1st psych lab in Germany
accomodation: adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
acetylcholine: involved in learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction-associated with Alzheimers
achievement motivation: a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard
action potential: a brief electrical impulse that travels down an axon-positive ions rush in (depolarizing)
addiction: compulsive drug craving and use
adolescence: the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
adrenal glands: secretes adrenaline and arouses body in times of stress
aggression: any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.
alpha waves: relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state (stage 1)
altruism: unselfish regard for the welfare of others.
amphetamines: stimulate neural activity and changes mood
amygdala: lined to fear and agression
anorexia nervosa: an eating disorder in which a normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve
aphasia: impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or Wernicke's area
assimulation: interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas
association areas: areas of the cerebral cortex not involved in primary motor or sensory functions
attachment: an emotional tie with another person; to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
attitude: feelings that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.
attribution theory: how we explain someone’s behavior-- by crediting either situation or person’s disposition.
autism: a disorder marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind
autonomic nervous system: controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs; sympathetic, parasympathetic
axon: carries the neurotransmitters
barbiturates: slows central nervous system
basal metabolic rate: the body's resting rate of energy expenditure
basic trust: Erik Erikson, a sense that world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
biological rhythms: periodic physiological fluctuations
brainstem: oldest part and central core of the brain, survival functions
bulimia nervosa: an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise
bystander effect: bystander less likely to help in a crowd (must notice, see it as an emergency, and take responsibility for it)
case study: one person'group is studied in depth in hope of revealing universal principles
central nervous system: brain and spinal cord
cerebellum: "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; movement, balance, implicit memory
cerebral cortex: covers the cerebral hemispheres
circadian rhythm: biological clock; 24/25-hour cycle. regular bodily functions
classical conditioning: a response is elicited by a stimulus (pairing a bell with food and getting salivation)
cognition: mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
cognitive dissonance theory: we act to reduce discomfort (dissonance) we feel when our thoughts (cognitions) and actions are inconsistent. EX: think studying is for nerds, then you study, you have to change your thought because you can't change your behavior.
cognitive map: a mental image of the environment
collective unconscious: Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history
companionate love: deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.
concrete operational stage: Piaget, (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) logical, concrete thought
conflict: a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.
conformity: adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
consciousness: our awareness of ourselves and our environment
conservation: Develops in pre-operational-properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
control: condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
corpus callusum: fiber tissue that connects the two hemispheres of the brain
correlation: extent to which two variables have a relationship-seeing how well either factor predicts the other
critical period: an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
critical thinking: thinking that doesn't blindly accept arguments and conclusions
cross-sectional study: a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
crystallized intelligence: accumulated knowledge and verbal skills;tends to increase with age
culture: enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
defense mechanisms: ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
deindividuation: the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
delta waves: large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep (stages 3 and 4)
dendrite: receives neurotransmitters
dependent variable: variable that changes based on the manipulation of the other variable (does studying cause good grades?)
depressants: drugs ( barbiturates, alcohol, and opiates) reduce neural activity and slow body functions
developmental psychology: studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
discrimination: in classical conditioning, learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
displacement: shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet
dissociation: split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
double-blind procedure: both the research participants and research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo
dream: sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind
drive-reduction theory: physiological need creates an aroused tension (a drive) that motivates us to satisfy the need
dualism: mind and body are two distinct entities that interact
ecstacy: mild hallucinogen
ego: largely conscious, "executive" part of personality mediates among demands of the id, superego, and reality
egocentrism: Piaget-child's difficulty taking another's point of view
embryo: 2 weeks after fertilization through the 2nd month
empirically derived test: a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups
endocrine system: body's "slow" chemical communication system; set of glands that secrete hormones into bloodstream
endorphins: "morphine within"- natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
equity: a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.
estrogen: a sex hormone, greater amounts by females than by males
experiment: does A cause B? Manipulation of independent variable to see response of the dependent variable.
external locus of control: outside forces beyond one's personal control determine one's fate
extinction: behavior will decrease in frequency or disappear when you stop pairing the NS and CS
false consensus effect: overestimating the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): physical and cognitive abnormalities caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking (small brain, low birthrate, retardation)
fetus: 9 weeks after conception to birth
fixation: Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved
fixed interval: reward/response given over time (the time is known) EX: every Thursday you will say EEEK! or Cover Jones!
fixed ratio: reward/response given after a specified number of responses have been given
flow: a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills
fluid intelligence: reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease late adulthood
formal operational stage: Piaget (normally beginning about age 12) during which people being to think about abstract concepts-hypotheticals
free association: in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing when prompted by therapist
frontal lobes: responsible for personality, organization, judgment, language formation
fundamental attribution error: analyzing another’s behavior, underestimating the situation and overestimating personal disposition.
generalization: getting basically the same response to similar stimuli
glial cells: cells that support, nourish, and protect neurons
glucose: the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues
group polarization: enhancement of a group’s prevailing extreme feelings through group discussion
groupthink: desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.
habituation: decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation
hallucinations: false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
hallucinogens: psychedlic drugs (experiencing sensations without sensory input)
hierarchy of needs: Maslow's pyramid -beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active
hindsight bias: after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it ("i knew it all along" phenomenon)
homeostasis: a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
hormones: chemical messengers manufactured by endocrine glands
hypnosis: social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggest to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
hypothalamus: regulates activities (hunger,thirst sex, body temperature)
hypothesis: testable prediction, educated guess
id: unconscious psychic energy strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification
identification: Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos
identity: one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
illusory correlation: perception of a relationship where none exists
imprinting: process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
incentive: a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behaviour
independent variable: the manipulated variable.
industrial-organizational psychology: the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behaviour in workplaces
informational social influence: influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality.
ingroup: "Us"--people with whom one shares a common identity.
ingroup bias: tendency to favor one’s own group.
insomnia: recurring problems in falling and staying asleep
instinct: behaviour that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
internal locus of control: one controls one's own fate
interneurons: communication between sensory neurons and motor neurons
intimacy: in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood
latent content: Freud- the underlying meaning of a dream (like snake = death)
learned helplessness: the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
lesion: tissue destruction
limbic system: emotional epicenter-(hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, amygdala)
longitudinal study: research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
manifest content: Freud-the story line of a dream
maturation: biological growth- uninfluenced by experience
mean: the average
median: middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
medulla: base of brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
menarche: first menstrual period
menopause: cessation of menstruation
mere exposure effect: exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.
methamphetamine: stimulates CNS -reduces baseline dopamine levels
mode: most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
monism: mind and body are different aspects of the same thing
motivation: a need or desire that energizes and directs behaviour
motor cortex: in the frontal lobe-controls voluntary movements
motor neurons: carry outgoing information from brain to the muscles and glands
myelin sheath: insulates axon-speeds transmission
narcolepsy: uncontrollable sleep attacks
naturalistic observation: observing and recording behavior in naturally situations
near-death experience: an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death
negative reinforcement: Mrs. Smith's 4th grade class doesn't have to take this week's spelling test because they had perfect attendance last week.
negative reinforcerment: remove adverse stimuli for behavior to CONTINUE (seatbelt noise disappears when seatbelt is put on)
nerves: neural "cables" containing many axons
nervous system: body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system
neural networks: interconnected neural cells
neuron: basic building block of the nervous system
neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that alter moods
night terrors: an appearance of being terrified; occur during Stage 4 sleep, seldom remembered
normative social influence: influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.
object permanence: things continue to exist even when not perceived
occipital lobe: lobe at the back of the head; vision
operant conditioning: learning through rewards, punishments, and reinforcement
operational definition: defining the research variables
opiates: opium and derivatives, depresses neural activity and lessons pain
organizational psychology: a subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change
outgroup: "Them"--those perceived as different or apart from one’s ingroup.
parasympathetic system: calms the body, conserving its energy
parietal lobe: lobe lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; touch and body position
passionate love: an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually at the beginning.
peripheral nervous system: sensory and motor neurons -connect the central nervous system (CNS) to rest of body
personal control: our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless
personality: an individual's characteristic PATTERN of thinking, feeling, and acting
personality inventory: a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviours
personnel psychology: a subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development
physical dependence: physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued
pituitary gland: regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands (part of limbic system)
placebo effect: experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavioir caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent
plasticity: brain's capacity for modification
population: all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study
positive psychology: the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive
posthypnotic suggestion: suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized
prejudice: an unjustifiable attitude toward a group and its members. generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.
preoperational stage: Piaget's (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) develops language but does NOT yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
primary sex characteristics: the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
projection: people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
projective test: Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics
psychoactive drug: chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood
psychoanalysis: Freud's theory - attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts
psychological dependence: psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emtions
psychosexual stages: stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones
puberty: the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
punishment: take away (cell phone) or give something (spanking) for behavior to STOP!
random assignment: everyone has the chance to be selected to be a part of the experimental or control group
random sample: each member has an equal chance of inclusion
range: subtracting the lowest from the highest
rationalization: self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions
reaction formation: ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites
reciprocal determinism: the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors
reflex: automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus
refractory period: a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm
regression: individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated
replication: repeating the essence of the study with more participants
repression: basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
reticular formation: part of brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
rooting reflex: when touched on cheek, turn toward touch, open mouth, and search for nipple (innate)
scapegoat theory: the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.
scatterplot: graphed cluster of dots, representing the values of 2 variables
schema: framework for understanding- organizes and interprets information
secondary sex characteristics: nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
self-actualization: according to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential
self-concept: a sense of one's identity and personal worth
self-concept: all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
self-esteem: one's feelings of high or low self-worth
self-serving bias: a readiness to perceive oneself favourably
sensorimotor stage: Piaget (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
sensory cortex: in the parietal lobe-registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
sensory neurons: carry incoming information from senses to the brain
set point: the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set
sexual disorder: a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning
sexual orientation: an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex or the other sex
sexual response cycle: the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters an Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
sleep: periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness- as distinct from unconsciouness resulting from acoma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
sleep apnea: sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
social clock: the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
social exchange theory: the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
social facilitation: stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.
social leadership: group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support
social loafing: the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts
social psychology: the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
social trap: a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.
social-cognitive perspective: views behaviour as influenced by the interaction between persons (and their thinking) and their social context
somatic nervous system: controls the body's skeletal muscles' skeletal nervous system
split brain: condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers between them
spontaneous recovery: the reappearance of an extinguished response after the passage of time, without further training
spotlight effect: overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders
standard devation: how much the scores vary from the mean
statistical significance: statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
stereotype: a generalized (overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.
stimulants: drugs ( caffeine,cocaine, and ecstasy) speed up body functions
stranger anxiety: fear of strangers beginning about 8 months
structural interviews: interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales
superego: represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations
survey: self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative
sympathetic nervous system: arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
synapse: junction between axon terminal (sender) of the neuron and the dendrite receiver of neuron.
task leadership: goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals
temporal lobes: lobe above the ears; hearing and comprehension
teratogens: agents-chemicals and viruses, can reach embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
terror-management theory: proposes that faith in one's worldview and the pursuit of self-esteem provide protection against a deeply rooted fear of death
testosterone: the most important of the male sex hormones
thalamus: brain's sensory switchboard, top of brainstem-sends information to the correct part of the brain
theory: explanation that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
theory of mind: people's ideas about their own and others' mental states - about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behaviours these might predict
threshold: level of stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse
tolerance: diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the use to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
trait: a characteristic PATTERN of behaviour or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports
unconditional positive regard: according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person
unconscious: Freud- reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. Today's psychologists-information processing of which we are unaware
variable interval: never know when response will occur (EX: falling stars) the time is not set and it doesn't always happen
variable ratio: reward or response will be given after an unpredictable number of times
withdrawal: discomfort and distress that follow stopping the use of an addictive drug
zygote: fertilized egg; 2-week period-develops into an embyro