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2 ways to reduce dissonance: changing our attitudes-----changing our behaviors
AIM: maximize benefits and minimize costs
Absolute Threshold: minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
Accommodation: the process by which lens changes shape to help focus near or far objects on the retina
Acoustic Encoding: sound especially word sounds
Acquisition: associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus
Acuity: the sharpness of vision - affected by the shape of the eye
Aggression: (anti social) any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy
Alfred Bandura's Experiments: bobo doll - woman was hitting the doll, the child saw and did the same
Altruism: unselfish regard for other' welfare
Anger: can generate aggression
Associative Learning: learning that 2 events occur together
Associative Learning: occurs through experience of linking 2 or more stimuli in sequence
Attitude-Behavior Connection: behavior affected by inner attitudes and external influences
Attitudes: belief/feeling that causes us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
Attribution Theory: casual explanations for behavior crediting either situation or disposition
B.F. Skinner: person who dealt with operant conditioning
Behaviorism: study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes
Binocular Cues: depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to both eyes together
Bottom-Up Processing: begins with sense receptors, then progresses to the brain's integration of the information
Bystander Effect: tendency to be less responsive if others are present
Change Blindness: man is talking to someone, something moves in front of them and the man switches with someone else and doesn't not realize the person changed
Chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units
Classical Conditioning: a neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a conditioned response in anticipation
Closure: fill in the gaps
Cochlear Implant: stimulates nerve to match tones
Cognitive Dissonance Theory: we act to reduce the discomfort(dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts(cognitions) are inconsistant
Cognitive Map: mental representation of the layout of one's environment
Color Deficient Vision: people who suffer red-green deficiency have trouble perceiving the number within the design (color blindness)
Compassionate Love: deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
Conditioned "Secondary" Reinforcer: stimulus that gains reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcer
Conditioned Response (CR): learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus ex. salivation triggered by bell
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): neutral stimulus that becomes associated with a UCS to trigger a response ex. bell
Cones: receptors near center of retina - fine detail and color vision - daylight conditions
Conformity: adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
Connectedness: spots, lines, and areas are seen as unit when connected
Continuity: perceive continuous patterns
Continuous Reinforcement: regular reinforcement of the desired behavior
Convergence: two eyes move inward for near object
Deindividuation: loss of self-awareness and self restraint in group situations that fosters anonymity
Deja Vu: "already seen" - cues from current situation trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience - different from clairvoyance or precognition
Depth Perception: seeing objects in 3D allows us to judge distance
Difference Threshold: minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time-AKA: Just Noticeable Difference
Discrimination: ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS
Discrimination: action
Ebbinghaus: person who used nonsense syllables
Echoic Memory: momentary auditory memory
Effortful Encoding: studying can maximize memory - when reviewing for and exam, start and end with the most important information
Effortful Processing: requires attention and conscious effort
Encoding: processing information so that it can be stored
Energy Wavelength: hue - dimension of color determined by wavelength of light
Equity: people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give
Explicit Memory: "declarative memory"
Extrinsic Motivation: desire to perform a behavior due to anticipated rewards/punishments
Farsightedness: faraway objects seen more clearly - object is focused behind retina
Figure and Ground: organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings
Fixed Interval: pay after a specified time interval
Flashbulb Memory: a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event for YOU
Foot-In-The-Door Phenomenon: tendency for people who have agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
Frustration: blocking of an attempt to achieve goal
Frustration-Aggression Principle: principle that frustration creates anger
Fundamental Attribution Error: when analyzing other peoples behavior, you have the tendency to underestimate the situation and overestimate the disposition
Fundamental Attribution Error: Gender: men are more likely than women to attribute their own failures to situation and accomplishments to person
Fundamental Attribution Error: Self: people are more aware of the influence of situation on their own behaviors
Furry Rat: what was the neutral stimulus in the little albert study?
Gate Control: regulates pain experience - moderates by memory
Generalization: tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar responses
Gestalt: or organized whole - tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
Group Polarization: enhancement of a group's prevailing attitudes through discussion within a group
Group Think: effect that can occur when the desire for harmony overrides realistic decision making
Grouping Principle: the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
Grouping Principles: proximity/similarity/continuity/closure/connectedness
Hearing Loss: conduction hearing loss (eardrum) - sensorineural hearing loss (nerve receptors) - hearing loss is normal over time
Hierarchies: complex information broken into broad concepts and subcategories
Home Team Advantage: feelings of comfort when you are in your comfort zone and familiar environment - a real effect
Iconic Memory: momentary visual memory
Implicit Memory: "procedural memory"
In-group: "us" - people with whom one shares a common identity
In-group Bias: tendency to favor one's own group
Inattentional Blindness: if you focus on how many times people in white are catching the ball you will not notice gorilla dancing in the middle
Intensity: amount of energy in a wave determined by amplitude
Interposition: closer object blocks distant object
Intrinsic Motivation: desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective
Iris: a ring of muscle that forms the colored portion of the eye, controls size of the pupil
Ivan Pavlov: studied classical conditioning in dogs
John B. Watson: viewed psychology as objective science
Just-World Phenomenon: tendency of people to believe the world is just and people get what they deserve.
Latent Learning: learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Learning: relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
Lenient: people are usually more _______ when assessing their own situations than others.
Lens: transparent structure behind pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina
Linear Perspective: parallel lines converge with distance
Long Term Memory: relatively permanent and limitless
Long Term Potentiation: increase in synapse firing potential after stimulation
Matching Principle: couples often share physical similarities and are usually rated as having comparable levels of attractiveness
Memory: persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
Milgrim's Conclusions: ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and withoug any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in a terrible destructive processes.
Milgrim's Factors of Influence: legitimate authority figure giving orders/affiliation with prestigious institution/ victims depersonalized/no role models for defiance
Milgrim's Follow-Up Obedience Experiment: a teacher was told by his boss to shock someone in an experiment. he continues to shock up to high vaults.
Mirror Neurons: frontal love neurons that fire with performing actions, also fire when observing actions of other - enables imitation
Mnemonics: memory aids that use imager, meaning and organizational devices
Modeling: process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Monocular Cues: depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone
Mood-Congruent Memory: Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood
Muller-Lyer Illusion: the lines in the back of a theater are longer than the ones at the ticket booth
Nearsightedness: nearby objects seen more clearly - objects focus in front of retina
Negative Punishment: withdraw a desirable stimulus
Negative Reinforcement: remove something aversive
Normative Social Influence: influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
Operant Conditioning: learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and diminished if followed by punishment
Opponent Process Theory: neural color receptors detect colors in opposing pairs
Out-Group: "them"-those perceived as different or apart form one's in-group
Overjustification Effect: the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: irregular reinforcement of behavior - slower acquisition - greatest resistance to extinction
Passionate Love: aroused state of intense positive absorption in another person present at the beginning of a relationship
Perception: the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
Perception Organization Cues: space/depth/distance/clarity/other subjects within the context/experience and expectation
Perceptual Consistency: perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change
Perceptual Organization: other objects within a context can be used to derive perceptual meaning
Perceptual Set: to perceive one thing and not another
Physical wave Properties: process by which sensory system converts stimulus energy to a neural message
Pitch: a tone's experienced highness or lowness
Positive Punishment: administer an aversive stimulus
Positive Reinforcement: add something desired
Prejudice: attitude
Prejudice: unjustifiable, negative feelings, and often leads to discriminatory actions
Prejudice: assumptions that are shaped by biases
Primary Enforcer: innately reinforcing stimulus
Priming: activating an association in memory, often subconsciously
Profiling: recording a person's behavior and analyzing psychological characteristics to identify a particular group
Prosocial Behavior: positive, constructive, helpful behavior - opposite of antisocial behavior
Proximity: group nearby figures together
Psychophysics: relationship between our physical characteristics and our psychological experience
Pupil: adjustable opening in the center of the eye
Recall: person must retrieve information learned earlier
Recognition: person identifies information previously learned
Rehearsal: conscious repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness and to encode it for storage
Reinforcement Schedules: reinforcement after a specified number of responses - the faster you move the more rewards you get
Reinforcer: event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Relative Brightness: closer objects appear brighter
Relative Clarity: hazy objects appear brighter
Relative Height: higher objects seen as more distant
Relative Motion: closer objects seem to move faster
Relative Size: smaller image is more distant
Relearning: time saved when learning material a second time
Retina: the light sensitive inner surface of the eye that contains rods and cones
Retinal Disparity: images from the two eyes differ - the closer the object the larger the disparity
Retrieval Cues: context primes memory to enhance retrieval
Reward: (reinforcements) pleasant stimulus that increase the behavior that it follow - powerful influence on behavior
Rods: detect black, white and gray, used for peripheral or twilight conditions
Role: _____ can evoke attitude
Scapegoat Theory: theory that prejudice provides an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
Selective Attention: focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
Self Reference: simplifying a complex paragraph of how to do laundry to a simpler one
Semantic Encoding: meaning including word meanings
Sensation: the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energy
Sensory Adaption: diminished sensitivity as a consequence of the repetition
Sensory Interaction: one sense influences another
Serial Position Effect: in a series of items people tend to recall the last and first items best
Shape: guide behavior toward desired goal
Short-Term Memory: holds a few items temporarily
Signal Detection Theory: predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation; detecting signal from noise
Similarity: group figures that are similar
Similarity Bias: people prefer familiarity and similarity
Skinners Box: chamber with key that animal manipulates to obtain food and water and contains devices to record responses
Social Exchange Theory: social behavior is an exchange process
Social Facilitation: your performance is facilitated by that certain environment
Social Facilitation and Performance: improved performance in the presence of others - does not apply to difficult or unmastered tasks
Social Learning Theory: we learn social behavior by observing other as they interact with their environments
Social Loafing: tendency for people to exert less effort when working in a group - perceive less accountability
Social Psychology: study of how we think about, influence, and relate to others
Spacing Effect: distributed practice yields better long term memory retention than massed practice
Spontaneous Recovery: reappearance after rest period of extinguished conditioned response
State-Dependent Memory: what is learned on one sate is more easily remembered in the same state
Stereotype: a generalized (often accurate, but often overgeneralized) belief about a group
Stereotype: belief
Stereotyped Beliefs: a system for predicting behaviors based on past experiences and standard typologies
Stereotypic Beliefs: influence the Attribution Theories we used to explain the behaviors of others
Subliminal Sensation-Threshold: stimuli are below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
Thorndikes's Principle: behaviors followed by favorably consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Top-Down Processing: guided by higher-level metal processes - draws on our experience, context, and expectations
Touch: allows us to experience pain, pleasure, detect danger, enhances emotional experience, ect
Transduction: process by which sensory system coverts stimulus energy to a neural message
Trichromatic Theory: three different retinal color receptors - red, green, blue
Two Events in Associative Learning: stimulus and its consequences
Unconditioned Response (UCR): unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus ex. salivation when food is in mouth
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): stimulus that naturally triggers a response ex. food
Variable Interval: pay at unpredictable time interval
Variable Ratio: reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (gambling, fishing)
Vision: dominant sense
Visual Encoding: picture images
Working Memory: briefly stored and processed memory. ex. look up number and say it over and over again - forget after dialing
Yellow: we do not have color receptors for this color according the the Trichromatic Theory
Yes: can children from an early age nndetect depth