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All 397 Terms

Term Definition
Mazzini Giuseppe Mazzini was the first person that tried to unify all of Italy. He preached a centralized democratic republic based on universal male suffrage and the will of the people. His brand of democratic republicanism seemed too radical for the people. Austria smashed Mazzini’s republicanism in 1848.
Carbonari A member of a secret political association in Italy, organized in the early part of the nineteenth century for the purpose of changing the government into a republic. (not in book, sounds right…)
Burschenschaften any of certain associations of students formed to promote patriotism, Christian conduct, and liberal ideas. (not in book, hope its right….)
Risorgimento the movement for, and period of, political unification in Italy beginning about 1750 and culminating in the occupation of Rome by Italian troops in 1870 (not in book, sounds right…)
Putting out system / Cottage system The merchant loans raw materials to several cottage workers, who processed the raw materials in their own homes and returned the finished product to the merchant.
Industrial Revolution a term first coined by awed contemporaries in the 1830s to describe the burst of major inventions and technical changes they had witnessed in certain industries. C. 1760-1850. Ms. Newton says its still continuing today though.
Thomas Newcomen Invented the first steam engine in 1705. (Thomas Savery created first one in 1698. Maybe Newcomen’s was more widespread.) Both burned coal to produce steam, which was then used to operate a pump. By earl 1770s, many of the engines were operating successfully, though inefficiently, in English and Scottish mines.
James Watt (1736-1819) In early 1760s, this gifted young Scot was employed by the University of Glazgow as a skilled craftsman making scientific instruments. In 1763 he was called upon to Newcomen engine being used in a physics course. After a series of observations, Watt saw that adding a separate condenser could reduce the Newcomen engine’s waste of energy. He patented the new steam engine in 1769, increasing the efficiency of the steam engine.
James Hargreaves a gifted carpenter invented the cotton-spinning Jenny about 1765. The spinning Jenny was simple and inexpensive. In early models, from six to twenty-four spindles were mounted on a sliding carriage, and each spindle spun a fine, slender thread. The woman moved the carriage back and forth with one hand and urned a wheel to supply power with the other.
Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) An English engineer who created the Bessemer procces, a process of producing steel, in which impurities are removed by forcing a blast of air through molten iron.
John Kay In the early eighteenth century, Kay invented the flying shuttle, which enabled the weaver of a loom to throw the shuttle back and forth between the threads with one hand.
Richard Arkwright created the water frame in the 1780s, a weaving device that employed a new principle. It quickly acquired a capacity of several hundred spindles and demanded much more power-waterpower. The water frame thus required large specialized mills, factories that employed up to 1 thousand workers from the beginning. The water frame could only spin course, strong thread, which was then put out for respinning on hand-powered cottage jennies.
Henry Cort In the 1780s, Cort developed the puddling furnace, which allowed pig iron to be refined in turn with coke (made from coal, not the drink or drug). Cort also developed heavy-duty steam-powered rolling mills, which were capable of spewing out finished iron in every shape and form.
Robert Fulton (1765-1815) An American engineer and inventor who developed the first useful submarine and torpedo (1800) and produced the first practical steamboat, the Clermont (1807). (not in book, sounds right)
George Stephenson In 1825, George Stephenson finished the first effective locomotive. In 1830, his Rocket sped down the track of he just-completed- Liverpool and Manchester Railway at 16 mph.
John Wycliffe scripture alone is basis for Christian religion, translated bible
Jan Hus burned at stake for rejecting transubstantiation at Council of Constance
Jacquerie- a French peasant revolt based on mythical French laboring peasant “Jacques”
Chaucer author, critical of church, humanist, “Canterbury Tales”
Dante humanist, “Divine Comedy”
Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis end of the Habsburg-Valois wars, Spain was victor, France had to pay huge indemnity to Spain.
Concordat of Bologna- French kings gained right to appoint all French priests/abbots in exchange for giving papacy power over a supreme universal council
Hundred Years’ War b/t Edward III (England) and Phillip IV (France), Edward denied kingship of France by barons who reinstitute salic law, Pragmatic Sanction.
Bubonic Plague 1/3 of all Europe’s pop died, spread by rats, brought by sailors to Crimea, work shortage, wages for skilled laborers soared.
New Monarchs exalted power of the sovereign, eliminated all opposition ruthlessly, ex.) Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain
Renaissance 1400-1600c., revival of humanism, classicism, art, music poetry, etc. Throughout Europe, diff. Places at diff. Times.
Humanism revival of the old classics of literature
Secularism concern w/ here-and-now (physical) rather than the spiritual
Individualism Concern for the capability and uniqueness of the individual personality
Rationalism Belief in relying on reason and logic to explain occurrences
Realism the style of art depicting objects in real proportions, begins in Ren., contrasts with Medieval Art (out of proportion)
Michelangelo Italian painter + sculptor, exs.) Statue of David, Sistine Chapel Ceiling
Brunelleschi artist, during Ren., painted in “perspective”- depiction of distance and space on a flat surface
Donatello foremost sculptor before Michelangelo
Da Vinci epidemy of the Ren., painter, philosopher, writer, ex.) Mona Lisa
Decameron Boccacio, survey of entire England before Ren., historically accurate
The Courtier Castiglione, explains the lifestyle of a proper gentleman, ex.) well-versed in poetry, literature, music, dance, etc.
Machiavelli “The Prince”, exalts the supreme power of the gov. (prince) over the people, since the people are naturally selfish
Erasmus “Praise of Folly”, humanist, education will lead to reform
Prince Henry the Navigator founded schools of navigation, his sailors found Guinea
B. Dias Rounded Cape of Good Hope, then forced to turn back
V. Da Gama reached India
Balboa 1st European to sail to Pacific Ocean
Cortez conquered Aztecs for Spanish crown, “Viceroyalty of Mexico”
Pizarro repeated Cortez’ feat in Peru, established “Viceroyalty of Peru” for Spanish crown
Reformation of Catholicism, exs.) Luther and Calvin, people begin to question faith and the worldliness of church, uneducated clergyman, corruptness, indulgences, etc.
Calvin/Calvinism more widespread impact than Luther, predestination, in communion the spirit of Jesus comes, but wine and bread are just physical
Luther/Lutheranism beg. of Protestant Reformation, 35 theses, consubstantiation, rather than transubstantiation
Edict of Nantes Henry IV (Navarre), 150 towns= freedom of worship for French Huguenots (Calvinists)
John Knox reformed Church of Scotland, Presbyters (Presbyterian movement), “Book of Common Order” for prayer services
Dutch Calvinists gained a following of rich merchants in the Netherlands, revolt against Habsburgs, Phillip sends Alva to pacify them
Catholic Reformation questioning of church beg. High middle Ages, starts with Luther, Catholics try to counter it w/ “Counter-Reformation” (see Reformation above)
War of the Three Henrys erupted after St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, b/t Henry of Guise, Henry of Navarre, Henry III. Henry of Navarre wins and becomes Henry IV of France.
Catherine de Medici wife of Henry II, holds power during reigns of her sons, orders assass. Of Gaspard de Coligny, ignites St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre.
Gaspard de Coligny assass. By Henry III (ordered by Catherine de Medici), prominent Protestant leader, ignites the massacre against the French Huguenots
Sir Thomas More “Utopia”, perfiect life a Christain man should live
Albrecht Durer pre-Ren./Ren. Painter
Hans Holbein Ren. Painter, drew portrait of Erasmus
Pieter Brughel Ren. Painter, realism (outside Italy)
Council of Constance Jan Hus= heretic and is burned at the stake
Roman Catholic Council of Trent Cath. Church tries to combat problems: simony, pluralism, absenteeism, nepotism, etc., also tries to improve education of the clergy
Pope Leo X excommunicates Luther
Duke of Alva sent by Phillip II to “pacify” Netherlands, establishes Council of Blood- 12,000 people killed in one day
Margaret of Valois, was going to be married before St. Barth. Day Massacre to Henry III of France (trying to unite Catholics w/ Protetants in France)
Pope Julius II convenes ecumenical council, but only from Italy so no “universal”, meet to discuss problems in church including education of clergy, etc.
Scientific Revolution Began with the Heliocentric Theory of Copernicus; Shattered the Medieval view of the world based on Aristotelian; Ptolemaic and theological astronomers
Ignatius de Loyola establishes Jesuits- take vow of poverty and attempt to keep people dedicated Catholics
Rembrandt painter, “the Jewish Bride”
Jan Van Eyck Flemish realist painter before the Ren.
Ursaline Order female-only group of Catholics formed to combat the Reformation (counter-reformation) with the Jesuits.
Fransiscans a group of friars with the Dominicans, can’t find much other than that srry.
Ferdinand and Isabella “new monarchs”, stresses power of monarch and sovereign, and loyalty of all subjects, start Spanish Inquisition- the pope approves it, against Jews and any non-Catholics in Spain
Inquisition a religious institution established to ensure the Catholic Faith
30 Years’ War a) began w/ Defenestration of Prague, Bohemian Phase, Ferdinand II (HRE) makes Bohemia fully Catholic. B) Danish Phase- Albert of WSallenstein defeats Christain IV of Denmark, begins feuding w/ Catholic League, divided into factions now. C) Swedish Phase- Gustavus Adolphus (Protestant), ened Habsburg ambition of uniting all German states under Catholic Rule. D) French/International Phase- Richelieu helps Swedes, war drags on, ends in Peace of Westphalia.
Cardinal Richelieu minister of King Louis XVIII, appointed by Marie de Medici , had the real power, wanted to curb power of nobility, 32 generalities, military provinces France was divided into
Habsburgs Spanish and Austrian, ruling family, dreamed of uniting Europe under Catholic Rule, stopped by Adolphus, enemies of France/Richelieu.
Scientific Method method still used today developed originally to help understand/test scientific hypotheses, hypothesis is tested through experiment w/ control, then results are recorded to answer scientific q’s.
Nicholas Copernicus Wrote On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres; Pioneered theory that the earth revolves around the sun; Destroyed the impression that the earthly world was different from the heavenly world; Condemned by Calvin, Luther, and the Catholic Church; Had his book published in 1543, the year of his death, to avoid ridicule from other astronomers
Tycho Brahe Influenced by Copernicus; Built observatory and collected data on the locations of stars and planets for over 20 years; His limited knowledge of mathematics prevented him from making much sense out of the data.
Johannes Kepler Assistant to Brahe; used Brahe’s data to prove that the earth moved in an elliptical, not circular, orbit; Wrote 3 laws of planetary motion based on mechanical relationships and accurately predicted movements of planets in a sun-centered universe; Demolished old systems of Aristotle and Ptolemy
Galileo Used observation rather than speculation to formulate ideas, such as laws on motion of falling bodies. Thus, he established experimentation as the cornerstone of science; Used telescope to discover 4 moons of Jupiter and the mountainous terrain of the moon, thus destroying the notion that planets were crystal spheres revolving around earth; Published Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems, which led to his arrest for heresy and having to publicly recant his views. This has come to symbolize the conflict between religion and scientific knowledge.
Sir Isaac Newton Greatest figure of the Scientific Revolution; organized ideas of previous scientists into one system of mathematical laws to explain the orderly manner in which the planets revolve around the sun. The key feature of this thesis was the law of universal gravitation, which states that every body in the universe attracts every other body in precise mathematical relationships. Such proof showed that the universe operated by rules, which could be explained through math, and that religious interpretation was not the sole means of comprehending the forces of nature.
Francis Bacon English politician and writer, advocated that new knowledge was acquired through an inductive reasoning process (using specific examples to prove or draw conclusion from a general point) called empiricism; rejected Medieval view of knowledge based on tradition, believed it’s necessary to collect data, observe, and draw conclusions. This was the foundation of the scientific method
Rene Descartes -- Believed it’s necessary to doubt everything that can be doubted; Said, “I think therefore I am.” proving his belief in his own existence and nothing else; His view of the world, called Cartesian Dualism reduced natural law into matter and mind, or physical and spiritual; This, combined with Bacon’s empiricism, became the Scientific method.
Pierre Bayle wrote Historical and Critical Dictionary examining religious beliefs and persecutions of the past. He found that human beliefs were very varied and often wrong. He concluded that nothing can ever be known beyond all doubt, and that one’s best hope was open-minded toleration. This skepticism was very influential. His Dictionary was the most popular book in private French libraries at that time.
David Hume Building on Locke’s teachings, he argued that the mind was just a bundle of impressions. These impressions originate only in sense experiences and our habits of joining these experiences together. Since out ideas ultimately reflect only our sense experiences, our reason can’t tell us anything about questions that cannot be verified by sense experience (in the form of controlled experiments or math), such as the origin of the universe and the existence of God. These ideas undermined the Enlightenment’s faith in the power of reason.
The Age of Enlightenment Between the publication of Newton’s ideas in 1687 and the death of Louis XIV in 1715; Its core of thought was that natural law, through the scientific method, could be used to understand all aspects of society; It was a secular movement free from the restraints of religion, instead focusing on inevitable progress
Thomas Hobbes Wrote Leviathan during English civil war, which claims that humans are unhappy and locked in a war against all in their original state of nature, but was protected by the absolute monarch. Thus man enters a social contract with the ruler in order to maintain law and order. A ruler had the right to put down rebellion by any means possible. He was overshadowed by John Locke.
John Locke Wrote Two Treatises on Government as justification of Glorious Revolution and end of absolutism in England. He argued that man is born good and has rights to life, liberty, and property. To protect these rights, people enter social contract to create government with limited powers. If a government did not protect these rights or exceeded its authority, Locke believed the people have the right to revolt. The ideas of consent of the governed, social contract, and right of revolution influenced the United States Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. He also laid the foundations for criticism of absolute monarchy in France.
Philosophes Thinkers of the Enlightenment; Wanted to educate the socially elite, but not the masses; were not allowed to openly criticize church or state, so used satire and double-meaning in their writings to avoid being banned; Salons held by wealthy women also kept philosophes safe; They considered themselves part of an intellectual community, and wrote back and forth to each other to share ideas.
Baron de Montesquieu French aristocrat who wanted to limit royal absolutism; Wrote The Spirit of Laws, urging that power be separated between executive, legislative, and judicial branches, each balancing out the others, thus preventing despotism and preserving freedom. This greatly influenced writers of the US Constitution. He greatly admired British form of government.
Voltaire Greatest of enlightened philosophers; He was educated by Jesuits, and came to challenge Catholic Church. He believed in distant deistic God – a clockmaker who built an orderly world and let in run under laws of science. He hated religious intolerance and felt that religion suppressed human spirit. He wrote Candide against evils of organized religion. He argued for religious toleration in Treatise on Toleration. His deism was intended to construct a more natural religion based on reason and natural law. He was imprisoned in the Bastille for 11 months in 1717. Then he was exiled in England for 3 years, when he came to admire their system of government and advocated freedom of thought and respect for all. Lived on the court of Frederick the Great of Prussia from 1743, where he supporter Enlightened Despotism.
Jean Jacques Rousseau He was committed to individual freedom, but thought that rationalism and civilization corrupt man. Spontaneous feeling was to replace the coldness of intellectualism. Man is born good and needs protection from society. This influenced the Romantic Movement of the nineteenth century. His book, The Social Contract tells how social inequalities develop when people sign a social contract agreeing to surrender to the general will in order to be free. This creates a government as a necessary evil to carry out general will. If general will fails, people can replace it. This has justified actions in the French revolution and in Hitler’s regime. He also wrote Emile that attacked society and proposed a new theory of education. He called for focus on logical thinking, reason, love, tenderness, and understanding toward children. He wanted children to be raised naturally and spontaneously in order to raise their emotional awareness.
Diderot Published work of many philosphes in his Encyclopedia. He hoped it would help people think more rationally and critically.
Immanuel Kant Professor in East Prussia, argued that if serious thinkers were granted freedom to exercise their reason in print, enlightenment would surely follow. He said that Frederick the Great was an enlightened monarch because he allowed this.
Physiocrats like philosophes, but with economics instead of social ideas
Adam Smiths Scottish economist; wrote Wealth of Nations arguing against government-controlled mercantilism; he outlined the nucleus of economic system that came to be known as capitalism; he believed in laissez-faire approach to business; he wanted individuals to be left to pursue their own economic gain, and this would work in the best interests of everyone.
Mazarin Chief minister and regent to Louis XIV; tried to continue Richelieu’s centralizing policies, but his attempts to increase royal revenue led to the civil wars known as the Fronde; He could not control nobility as Richelieu had.
Treaty of Westphalia Ended 30 Years War; Treaty signed at Munster and Osnabruck, ending religious wars; the sovereignty of over 300 German princes recognized, limiting power of Holy roman Emperor; independence in United Provinces of the Netherlands recognized; France received Alsace, Sweden received large cash indemnity and control over German territories along Baltic Sea; Papacy denied right to participate in German religious affairs; Augsburg agreement remained permanent; Calvinism became legally permissible creed.
Treaty of Westphalia 1648, ended Thirty years’ War with the following results: Peace of Augsburg renewed, Calvinism recognized; Edict of Restitution revoked; Power of Holy Roman Emperor weakened because every prince of the 300 German states gained sovereignty; France and Sweden gain territory from Holy Roman Empire; Switzerland and Holland (Netherlands) ger independence from Hapsburg rule; Papacy expelled from German religious affairs, symbolizing reduced role of Church in European politics; Age of religious wars ended, now wars fought to maintain balance of power
Treaty if Utrecht 1713, ended War of Spanish Succession between Louis XIV’s France and the rest of Europe; prohibited joining of French and Spanish crowns; ended French expansionist policy; ended golden age of Spain; vastly expanded British Empire
printing press invented by Johann Gutenberg in 1454; first book was Gutenberg Bible; changed private and public lives of Europeans; used for war declarations, battle accounts, treaties, propaganda; laid basis for formation of distinct political parties; enhanced literacy, people sought books on all subjects
Gustavus Adolphus joins Thirty Years’ War in 1629, king of Sweden, Protestant leader, stands up for fellow Protestants, military genius, wins a lot for Protestant team; supported by Richelieu, who wants to end Hapsburg power; killed in 1632 at battle of Luetzen
William Shakespeare actor and playwright in Elizabethan literature; owned globe theater, which played his own work after 1603; famous for originality of characters, diversity of plots, understanding of human psychology, and unexcelled gift for language; he was a renaissance man in his appreciation for classical culture, individualism, and humanism; wrote comedies, tragedies, and histories; people see themselves in his characters
Edmund Spenser author of Faerie Queene in Elizabethan era, one of the greatest moral epics in any language
Christopher Marlowe another Elizabethan era writer, wrote poetically beautiful plays Tamburlaine and The Jew of Malta; paved the way for Shakespeare
Thirty-Nine Articles basic tenets of Church of England, written by English bishops in 1563; part of Elizabethan Settlement
Brunswick Manifesto 1792, during the radical stage. Austria and Prussia made this saying that they would destroy Paris if any harm came to the French king(Louis XVI)
September Massacres follows Louis’ imprisonment (1792). Stories that aristocrats and priests plotting with allied invaders. Angry crowds of sans culottes led by Danton invade prisons of Paris, killed 1,000 prisoners they thought were against the republic.
Citizen Capet Louis convicted in front of national convention of treason, voted guilty. Stripped of all titles and honorifics by the egalitarian, republican government, Citizen Louis Capet was guillotined in front of a cheering crowd
Republic of Virtue a speech given by Maximilien Robespierre in 1794. In it, provided his political theory. advocates the use of terror in defending democracy, which he equated with virtue. advocated many of the ideals expressed in the French Constitution of 1793.The "Republic of Virtue" was part of the dechristianization of the French Revolution. The leaders renamed the cathedral Notre Dame de Paris to 'The Temple of Reason. 'The new French Revolutionary Calendar was created too
Mountain people part of National convention. Led by Robespierre and Danton. Sat on uppermost left hand benches. More reactionary than Girondists; both competitive for power.
Reign of terror (1793-1794).used revolutionary terror to solidify homefront.special courts judged severely, 40,000 executed, 300,000 in prison. Some say wasn’t directed at any single class, but whoever opposed the revolutionary government.
Thermidorean Reaction Robespierre kills those who criticized him for being soft on the wealth, led by Jacques Hebert. Several of Robespierre’s collaborators and Danton guillotined. Radicals and moderates take down Robespierre on 9 Thermidor, next day guillotined. Middle class lawyers and professionals reasserted authority. National Convention abolished many economic controls, restricted organizations of sans-culottes…
Directory National Convention-middle class writes a constitution in 1795. Elect members of a reorganized legislative assembly-5 man executive. Continued to support French military expansion. Actions reinforced widespread disgust with war and starvation(shown in national elections). Use army to nullify elections, govern dictatorially.
Coup detat Napoleon ended the Directory in a coup d’état and substituted a strong dictatorship for a weak one.
1. Chernobyl An abandoned city in northern Ukraine, in the Kiev Oblast (prvince) near the border with Belarus. The city was abandoned in 1986 due to the Chernobyl disaster at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, which is located 14.5 kilometers (9 miles) north-northwest. The power plant had been named after the city, and was located in Chernobyl Raion (district), but the city and the plant were not directly connected. At the time of power plant construction a twin city of the plant, Prypiat was built for power plant workers
Plebiscite for “ constitutional changes, uses national plebiscite( yes or no vote).
2. Glasnost is a Russian word for "transparency" or "openness." Mikhail Gorbachev used the term to describe a program of reform introduced to the Soviet Union in 1985 whose goals included combating corruption and the abuse of privilege by the political classes. The Glasnost’s goal was to increase public discussion of issues and accessibility of information to the public. The policy met resistance during the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, when authorities hid the true extent of the nuclear accident for several days.
Concordat of 1801 reaffirmed the Roman Catholic Church as the major religion(but religious toleration for all) of France and restored some of its civil status(pleased Catholic French which were majority)government could nominate bishops, but pope can remove them. [During the French Revolution, the National Assembly had confiscated Church properties and issued the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, which made the Church a department of the State, removing it from the authority of the Pope. Subsequent laws abolished the traditional Gregorian Calendar and Christian holidays.] This restored some ties to the papacy, largely in favor of the state; the balance of church-state relations was good for Napoleon Bonaparte.
Napoleonic wars The Napoleonic Wars comprised a series of global conflicts fought during Napoleon Bonaparte's imperial rule over France (1804–1815). They formed to some extent an extension of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789. These wars revolutionized European armies and artillery, as well as military systems, and took place on a scale never before seen, mainly due to the levee en masse(ability to call all able-bodied men to fight). French power rose quickly, conquering most of Europe; and collapsed rapidly after the disastrous invasion of Russia (1812), and Napoleon's empire ultimately suffered complete military defeat, resulting in the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France in 1814 and 1815. (just outline from wiki-details you should learn on your own)
3. Perestroika Is the Russian term (which passed into English) for the economic reforms introduced in June 1985 by the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Its literal meaning is "restructuring", referring to the restructuring of the Soviet economy. To do this Gorbachev and his supporters permitted an easing of government price controls on some goods.
Battle of Austerlitz 1805France defeats Austria and Russian armies
4. Demokratizatsiya Beginning as an attack on corruption in the Communist party, it led to the first free elections in the Soviet Union since 1917. It was a slogan introduced by General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev in January 1987 calling for the infusion of "democratic" elements into the Soviet Union's increasingly old political process. For Gorbachev, demokratizatsiya meant the introduction of multi-candidate--not multiparty--elections for local Communist Party (CPSU) and soviet offices. In this way, he hoped to rejuvenate the party with progressive personnel who would carry out his institutional and policy reforms. The CPSU would retain sole custody of the ballot box.
Jena 1806, Napoleon defeats Prussian army
Auerstadt The twin battles of Jena and Auerstedt 1806; on the plateau west of the river Saale in today's Germany, between the forces of Napoleon I of France and Frederick William III of Prussia. The decisive defeat suffered by the Prussian army resulted in Prussia's elimination from the anti-French coalition until the liberation war of 1813.
Treaty of tilsit 1807, defeats Russia. Alexander I and Napoleon met on a raft near Tilsit(border area between Russia and Prussia).sign Treaty of Tilsit:French and Russia allies against Britian.
5. Solidarity Is a Polish trade union federation founded in September 1980 at the then Lenin Shipyards, and originally led by Lech Wałęsa. It was the first non-communist trade union in a communist country. In the 1980s it constituted a broad anti-communist social movement. The government attempted to destroy the union with the martial law of 1981 and several years of repressions, but in the end it had to start negotiating with the union.
Battle of Trefulger- British forces destroy French navy; gives England command of seas and end Napolaon’s plan to invade British isles. ]
Lord Nelson English admiral fought in battle of Trefulger, died, became one of greatest naval heroes.
Continental system Napoleon forbade importation of British goods. He believed it would ruin their economy, but it failed. Europe needed their goods, and there was widespread smuggling. Resentment against this was one of the causes of nationalistic revival, which eventually ended Napoleon’s complete European dominance.
Peninsular war Napoleon puts his brother Joseph on throne of Spain;angers Spanish people , they revolted waging guerrilla war for a while. Eventually, British and Spanish forces under Duke of Wellington drive French out. One of reasons for Napoleon’s decline.
Lech Walesa A Polish politician, a former trade union and human rights activist, and also a former electrician. He co-founded Solidarity, the Soviet bloc's first independent trade union, won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1983, and served as President of Poland from 1990 to 1995.
Yugoslavia Civil war broke out in Yugoslavia. As the Communist regime fell, Yugoslavia was divided up into Serbia, Bosnia-Hergezovenia, Macedonia, Croatia and Slovenia. Fighting soon broke out inside these areas, as Serbs attempted to gain control of the entire territory. The Serbs instituted a policy of "ethnic" cleansing, whose goal was to force non-Serbs out of all areas that the Serbs conquered.
Ethnic cleansing Refers to various policies or practices aimed at the displacement of an ethnic group from a particular territory in order to create ethnically pure society. The Serbs instituted a policy of "ethnic" cleansing, whose goal was to force non-Serbs out of all areas that the Serbs conquered.
Dayton Accord On Nov. 21, 1995, after 21 days of intensive negotiations at an anything-but-luxurious American Air Force base in Dayton, Ohio, the three Bosnian leaders initialed a peace agreement and 11 annexes, known as the Dayton accords, to try to bring an end to nearly four years of terror and killing in the former Yugoslavia. About 250,000 people died and another 2.7 million were turned into refugees.
Boris Yeltsin Was the first President of the Russian Federation from 1991 to 1999. The Yeltsin era was a traumatic period in Russian history—a period marked by widespread corruption, economic collapse, and enormous political and social problems. In June 1991 Yeltsin came to power on a wave of high expectations. On June 12 Yeltsin was elected president of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic with 57% of the vote, becoming the first popularly elected president in Russian history. But Yeltsin never recovered his popularity after endorsing radical economic reforms in early 1992 which were widely blamed for devastating the living standards of most of the Russian population. By the time he left office, Yeltsin was a deeply unpopular figure in Russia, with an approval rating as low as two percent by some estimates.
Russian federation A new Russia not part of the Soviet Union.
Chechnya Is a federal subject of Russia (a republic). It is located in the Northern Caucasus Mountains, in the Southern Federal District. It borders Stavropol Krai to the northwest, the republic of Dagestan to the northeast and east, Georgia to the south, and the republics of Ingushetia and North Ossetia to the west. During the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Chechen-Ingush ASSR was split into the Republic of Ingushetia which wanted to remain part of Russia and the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria which sought independence. Following the bloody First Chechen War with Russia, which included a mass exodus of non-Chechen minorities, the republic gained a de facto sovereignty, although only the Afghan Taliban government recognized it in January 2000. Russian federal control was restored after the Second Chechen War. Since then there was a systematic reconstruction and rebuilding process, though unrest remains an issue.
Maastricht Union In December 1991 the European Union reached an agreement in the Dutch town of Maastricht. The Maastricht treaty set strict financial criteria for joining the proposed monetary union, with its single currency, and set 1999 as the target date for its establishment. The treaty also anticipated the development of common policies on defensive and foreign affairs after achieving monetary union.
Euro The euro was established by the provisions in the 1992 Maastricht Treaty on European Union that was used to establish an economic and monetary union. In order to participate in the new currency, member states had to meet strict criteria such as a budget deficit of less than three per cent of their GDP(income minus foreign investments), a debt ratio of less than sixty per cent of GDP, low inflation, and interest rates close to the EU average. In the Maastrict Treaty, the United Kingdom and Denmark were granted exemptions from moving to the stage of monetary union which would result in the introduction of the euro.
George H. W. Bush Peace in Europe encouraged the United States and the Soviet Union to scrap a significant portion of their nuclear weapons in a series of agreements. In September 1991 President George H. W. Bush also canceled the around the clock alert status for American bombers outfitted with atomic bombs, and a floundering Gorbachev quickly followed suit. For the first time in four decades, Soviet and American nuclear weapons were no longer standing ready to destroy capitalism, communism, and life itself.
George W. Bush In response to the September 11, 2001 attacks on America, Bush announced a "war on terror", which came to be a central issue of his presidency. In early October 2001, he ordered an invasion of Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban as part of an attempt to defeat al-Qaeda. In March 2003, Bush then ordered an invasion of Iraq, asserting that Iraq had violated UN Resolution 1441 regarding weapons of mass destruction. Claims made by Bush in support of the war have been highly contested, and the war is currently rather unpopular in the U.S.
Saddam Hussein As president of Iraq, Saddam maintained power through the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) and the first Persian Gulf War (1991). During these conflicts, Saddam repressed movements he deemed threatening to the stability of Iraq, particularly Shi'a and Kurdish movements seeking to overthrow the government or gain independence, respectively. While he remained a popular hero among many disaffected Arabs everywhere for standing up to the West and for his support for the Palestinians, U.S. leaders continued to view Saddam with deep suspicion following the 1991 Persian Gulf War. Saddam was deposed by the U.S. and its allies during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
First Gulf War In 1991 was a conflict between Iraq and a coalition force of approximately 30 nations led by the United States and mandated by the United Nations in order to liberate Kuwait.
Invasion of Iraq The 2003 invasion of Iraq by the United States, Britain, Australia and Poland officially began on March 20, 2003. U.S. President George W. Bush stated that the objective of the invasion was "to disarm Iraq of weapons of mass destruction, to end Saddam Hussein's support for terrorism, and to free the Iraqi people". In preparation, 100,000 U.S. troops were assembled in Kuwait by February 18. The United States supplied the majority of the invading forces. Supporters of the invasion included a coalition force of more than 40 countries, and Kurds in northern Iraq. The invasion of Iraq encountered immense popular opposition. Between January 3 and April 12, 2003, 36 million people across the globe took part in almost 3,000 protests against the Iraq war. The 2003 invasion began the Iraq War.
Operation Desert Storm Operation Desert Storm was the code name given to the first U.S.-led war against Iraq in the Persian Gulf on January 17, 1991.
People’s Budget Strongly advocated for by Winston Churchill, the People’s Budget was a philosophy of a very liberal form of government which included many unprecedented taxes on the wealthy and radical social welfare programs to Britain’s political life.
Women’s Suffrage Due to the heavy involvement of women in the working force during World War I, after World War I most European countries granted Women’s Suffrage – the right of women to vote.
Georges Boulanger A French soldier who was among France’s Third Republic members who attacked and destroyed the Paris Commune. He also introduced various reforms all on the path for better rights and benefits of soldiers.
Dual Monarchy A union of two monarchies where the thrones of each monarchy are integrated. (Example – Austria-Hungary, Barndenburg-Prussia, etc.)
Magyars An ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. Although the Magyars were one of the largest ethnic groups, that entire region had many ethnic groups who always ended up fighting. These conflicts made it extremely difficult to bring nationalism to the region.
Russification Before the early soviets, many nations that Russia ruled over adopted Russian culture, language etc. which is termed Russification. However, once the soviets took power, they believed they needed to reverse this russification so that their colonies and faraway lands would be socialist/soviet in content but also have a hint of their own nationality in order for it be a successful system.
Lenin Socialist who came to power and created the Bolshevik (Russia Communist) party. Along with Trotsky, he defeated the Whites in the Russian Civil
Bolsheviks The “majority” – Communist party led by Lenin. Although they were not the majority and actually received a terrible percentage of the Russian Congress’s vote, Lenin kept the name to create attraction and support. After the Russian Congress received the low voting, the Bolsheviks and Lenin took over and simply disregarded the Russian Congress from there on out.
Mensheviks Russian revolutionary movement that rose in 1903 and opposed the Bolsheviks and battled them for power.
Social Revolutionaries The Social Revolutionaries were a group of people who directly opposed the Russian Duma and performed acts of terrorism, both political and agrarian, in order to get their points across. This broke off into the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.
Constitutional Democrats/Kadets/KDs Mainly supported by professionals, the Const. Dem. Was a liberal party in Tsarist Russia. They demanded universal sufferage and a Constituent Assembly around 1905, the Russian Revolution. They were the left of the other movement, the Octobrists.
Father Gapon a Russian Orthodox priest who organized the Assembly of Russian Factory and Plant Workers – which was an organization formed to defend worker’s rights and elevate their moral and religious status. He was the one who presented the peaceful petition to the Tsar on Bloody Sunday – after which he called on radicals to violently overthrow the tsar.
“Bloody Sunday” When peaceful demonstrators marched to Tsar Nicholas II with a petition but were then gunned down by the Imperial Guard. The petition and march were organized by Father Gapon who was paid by the Okhrana, the Russian secret police. The Okhrana employed him so that he could disrupt the Russian government’s activities from within the Russian government – I’m not sure of the point of that, but they did it. The term for someone who does this is “agent provocateur”.
October Manifesto Written by Tsar Nicholas II as a response to the Revolution in 1905 which promised civil liberties to the people such as personal immunity, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom of association. Also, he promised to allow the Duma more power and participation and that no law could be passed without the Duma’s consent.
Octobrists Firmly committed to the vision of a constitutional monarchy, the Octobrists were a liberal party who pushed for the enforcement of the October Manifesto.
Sergei Witte A highly influential policy maker who presided over extensive industrialization within the Russian Empire. He was the author of the October Manifesto and was the Prime Minister of the Russian Empire. He was heavily involved in economics of Russia and pursued an ambitious program of railway construction.
Peter Stolypin Prime minister of Russia from 1906-1911. He was very involved in fighting radical groups and he also took upon himself various agrarian reforms – which he thought and were proven to be essential for the Russian economy.
Kulaks The rich farmers/peasants of Russia. Stolypin believed that if farmers and peasants were given help or provided with more rights which would increase their monetary benefits they would support the Tsar – and indeed, the kulaks did provide a lot of support for the tsar.
Mir this word refers to a village or community with the idea that all members of a community must work together cooperatively to assure mutual survival (thus the sharing of work, food and in the cold winter months warmth).
Zemstovs A system of local-self government instituted by Alexander II of Russia and after the October Revolution, the system was shut down. They consisted of a respresentative council and an executive board.
Triple Alliance Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
Berlin Conference The Berlin Conference regulated European Colonization and trade in Africa.
Balkan Powder Keg The Balkans of the early part of the twentieth century. Many conflicts arose because of nationalistic parts of the Balkans began to rise against their oppressors, the Turks. World War I began in Sarajevo, in the Balkans, and it was the region of intense ethnic violence in the 1990s. The Balkans was like a ton of gun powder, and when war would set fire to it, there would be a serious explosion – not literally, but you get what I mean.
Ottoman Empire Centered in Constantinople, the Turkish imperial state that conquered large amounts of land in the Middle East, North Africa, and the Balkans, and fell after World War I.
Sepoy Mutiny The last serious uprising from the Indians against their British oppressors. After Britain crushed the Sepoy Mutiny, Britain had full control over the Indians.
British East India Company Same thing as Dutch East India Company but it was made before the DEIC and was in India under British control.
Dutch East Indies The Netherlands. These were the colonies set up by the Dutch East India Company – Founded in 1602, this joint-stock company had total control over trading (mainly in spices) between the East Indies and the Netherlands.
Opium Wars England’s successful efforts to force China to allow the sale of opium in China, beginning in 1839. China’s imperial government opposed the sale, but England’s forces were too strong. England’s colony, India, was a major source of opium and needed markets for the supply it produced.
Treaty of Nanking 1842 agreement ending the Opium War between China and England and giving the England control of Hong Kong and regional ports, as well as awarding the British citizens extraterritoriality rights.
“scramble for Africa” It’s like an entire section of our book, but I’ll try to sum up. Basically, it was just a few countries such as England and others who wanted Africa and were going crazy in wars over land there. After the European countires seized lands, they often enslaved the native people and forced moral and religious values upon them.
Franco-Russian Alliance no clue, France and Prussia/Germany hated each other.
Franco-Prussian War Bismark starts a war with France to get the rest of Germany to ally with Prussia to complete the unification of Germany. They win and France gives up Alsace-Lorraine, which makes France eternally hate Germany.
Triple Entente Great Britian, France, and Russia allied together to stop Germany's aspirations. They also worked to keep a hold on Austria-Hungary.
Moroccan Crisis British and French make deal, French accept Brit. rule in Egypt, Brit. support French to dominate Morrocco. Germany don't like alliance, don't accept, call international conference, Algeciras Conference of 1906, brings Brit+French closer together, Germany gets nothing except no friends except for Austria/Hungary. Anglo-French Entente of 1904 settled all colonial issues
Algeciras Conference International conference called to deal with the Moroccan question. French get Morocco, Germany gets nothing, isolated. Result is U.S, Britain, France, Russia see Germany as a threat.
Central Powers 1914: Austria, Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire are known as Central powers during wars.
the Allies After WWI, United States, Britain, {Japan}, France, Western powers who defeated Germany and dictated terms of treaty of Versailles.
Trench warfare Fighting with trenches, mines, and barbed wire. Horrible living conditions, great slaughter, no gains, stalemate, used in WWI.
Schlieffen Plan Attack plan by Germans, proposed by Schliffen, lightning quick attack against France. Proposed to go through Belgium then attack France, Belgium resisted, other countries took up their aid, long fight, used trench warfare.
Western Front the western part of the schleiffen plan, this is where France, Britain and later America battled Germany. Took place through the neutral Belgium. The front left
Battle of Verdun and Somme Both battles were brutal. At the battle of Somme the French and British gained 125 square miles at the cost of 600,000 men and 500,000 for the germans. German offensive led to the battle of Verdun an additional 700,000 killed and the offensive proved unsuccessful.
Eastern Front the eastern portion of the schleiffen plan, the intent was to quickly attack the Russian with the help of the Austro-Hungarian empire and take advantage of the slow Russian mobilization, 2,000,000 Russians were killed and it ended in the treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
Wilson’s 14 points 14 strongly emphasized points by Woodrow Wilson, these points were optimistic tried to strengthen countries with self determination. The most important point was to establish the League of Nations, all in all these ideas were discarded and dismissed.
Treaty of Brest Litovsk after losing major territory the Russians surrendered and agreed to sign the treaty. The treaty sliced about a third of the Russians western territory away. This officially brought the end of the Russian empire.
Paris Peace Conference The great rulers and countries excluding germany and Russia met in Versailles to negotiate the repercussions of the war, such leaders included Loyd George (Britain), Woodrow Wilson (America), Cleamancu (France) and Italy. The treaty of Versailles was made but not agreed to be signed and the conference proved unsuccessful.
Treaty of Versailles Says that Germany loses all colonies and European territories, they were obligated to limit their army to 200,000 men and pay appx. $38 billion. They also had to admit responsibility for the war. From many nations were created such as Yugoslavia and Serbia. The treaty proved a failure and America and Britain backed out, carving the way to WWII.
Kellog-Briand Pact Proposed by American Secretary of State and French foreign minister Aristade Briand and was an international treaty planning for the renunciation of war an instrument of national policy. (pg.939)
Leon Trotsky Lead the Bolsheviks of Russian along side Lenin. He was a spellbinding revolutionary orator and independent racial Marxist, who brilliantly executed the Bolshevik seizure of power by convincing the Petrograd Soviet to form a special military-revolutionary committee and make him its leader. His soldiers joined with the Bolsheviks to overtake members of the provisional government and win the vote of the Congress of soviets. He was also leader of the Red Army in the civil war.(908,910)
Joseph Stalin Stalin became dictator of Russia after Lenin’s death in 1924. He led the USSR through World War II and into the Cold War. He died in 1953 and is remembered for his brutal purges in his nation. (958,959)
Soviets The Soviets formed the Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies. This additional political body continually checked the provisional government’s power and ultimately weakened the provisional government’s power. Most notably they decreed the “Army Order No. 1” which took away officers of their authority and placed power in the hands of elected committees of common soldiers. This decree led to a total collapse of the army, which opened up new leadership positions and proved to be Lenin’s perfect opportunity to seize power. (906)
Rasputin Self-proclaimed holy man who claimed to heal the sick and have prophecy. He had much influence over Tsarina Alexandra and she often went to him for advise on political issues. He was believed to be having a sexual affair with Tsarina Alexandra and was assassinated by three members of the higher aristocracy; Tsarina Alexandra was very distraught and depressed due to his death (coincidence? I think not). (905)
Tsarina Alexandra After Tsar Nicholas II renounced the Duma and decided to go fight the war on the battlefield among the soldiers, Tsarina Alexandra was left to take power with the help of the infamous Rasputin, whom she was accused of having a sexual affair with. Due to the great political distress that followed, the Duma re-assumed power and declared a provisional government. (905)
Provisional Government The provisional government was declared by the Duma and resulted in Nicholas II’s abdication. The provisional government quickly established equality before the law, freedom of religion, speech, and assembly, the right of unions to organize and strike, and the rest of the classic liberal program. Kerensky became the prime minister and rejected social revolution because he, along with most people, believed that planning one last, successful war offensive would be more important than domestic affairs. Due to the strong and arduous war effort, many people suffered which lessened the popularity and ultimately led to the downfall of the Provisional Government. (906,908)
A. Kerensky was elected Prime Minister of Russia in July 1917; he was a moderate socialist; he refused to confiscate large land holdings and give them to the peasants fearing this would destroy the peasant based army.
Army Order #1 stripped officers of their authority and placed power in the hands of elected committees of common soldiers; designed to protect the revolution from a counter revolution; issued in 1917.
April thesis The Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned to the capital of Russia, Petrograd, on April 3, 1917, just over a month following the February Revolution which had brought about the establishment of the liberal Provisional Government. He set out his analysis of where Russian politics should develop in his famous April Theses published in the newspaper, Pravda. The theses dealt with various areas - for instance, the Bolshevik attitude to the First World War, their attitude to the Provisional Government, and how Russia should be governed in the future and the future of the Bolsheviks
Pravda see above
July Days refers to events in 1917 that took place in Petrograd, Russia, between July 4 and 7 July (Julian calender) (July 16-July 20, Gregorian calender), when soldiers and industrial workers in the city rioted against the Russian Provisional Government. Most significantly, the outcome of the July Days represented a temporary decline in the growth of Bolshevik power and influence in the period before the October Revolution.\
Kornilov Affair in late 1917 Kerensky’s commander in chief, General Laver Kornolov led a feeble attack against the provincial government in September; his forces were quickly defeated.
The October Revolution The October Revolution in Russia also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, is traditionally dated to November 6 and 7, 1917, (some sources say october 25th, 1917) The October Revolution was the second phase of the overall Russian Revolution of 1917, after the February Revolution of the same year. The October Revolution overthrew the Russian Provisional Government and gave the power to Bolsheviks. It was followed by the Russian Civil War (1917–1920) and the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922.
Red Guard were armed groups of workers formed in the time frame of the Russian Revolution of 1917.
White guard During the Russian civil war, the white army was the opposition to the red army, or the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin. The white guard was led by old army officers and consisted of Southern Russia, Ukraine, Siberia, and west of Petrograd. They came from many social groups and were united by their hated of the Bolsheviks. White lost the war because the Reds controlled the center, and Whites were disunited on the outside. Whites were vaguely conservative which did not unite all foes of Bolsheviks, who had a better army.
Russian Civil War lasted around November 1918 – spring of 1920, White guard fought Red army under Bolsheviks + Lenin. Red army won.
Cheka The re-established tsarist secret police, which hunted down and executed thousands of real or suspected foes, sowing fear and silencing opposition.
Balfour Declaration a 1917 British mandate that declared British support of a National Home for the Jewish people in Palestine.
Wilson President Woodrow Wilson, in January 1918, created a peace proposal called the fourteen points, which stressed national self-determination and the rights of small countries. He was almost obsessed with creating the League of Nations. At the Paris Peace conference of 1919 Wilson helped create the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations, which the United states never joined. He ensured that Germany’s territorial losses after WWI were minor.
Lodge Henry Cabot Lodge led Republican senators in refusing to ratify the Treaty of Versailles without changes to in the articles creating the League of Nations, because the treaty seemed to give the League too much power.
Constituent Assembly a freely elected assembly promised by the Bolsheviks, but permanently disbanded after one day(January 18,1918) under Lenins orders after the Bolsheviks won less than one fourth of the elected delegates.
Tsar Nicholas I Last emperor of Russia. He ruled from 1894 until his forced abdication in 1917. Commisioned priest, Father Gapon, to organize group to counteract the Marxists. Nicholas proved unable to manage a country in political turmoil and command its army in World War I. Dissolved Duma in 1906 His rule ended with the Russian Revolution of 1917, after which he and his family were executed by Bolsheviks.
Lusitania British passenger boat sunk by a German submarine that claimed 1,000 lives. One of main reasons Amereica decided to join the war.
Mensheviks The party which opposed to the Bolsheviks. Started in 1903 by Martov, after dispute with Lenin. THE Mensheviks wanted a democratic party with mass membership.
NItzsche Believed that Western civilization was in decline because of Christian humility and an overstress on rational thinking at the expense of passion and emotion. Believed there was a need for few superior men to lead rest of inferior people
Logical Empiricism (logical positivism)- that philosophy was no more han clarification of thoughts and study of language, and couldn’t answer great questions like the meaning of life.
Existentialism humans can overcome meaningless of life by personal action. Popular because advocated positive human action at time of hopelessness. (Germany- Heidgdger and Jaspers; France- Sartre and Camus)
Heiddger German philosopher, helped develop Existentialism. author of Being and Time (1927).
Karl Jasper Was a philosopher, believed in modern existentialism, made it popular.
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) was a modern existentialist, believed that human beings just turn up on the scene, and once they “turn up” they seek to define themselves. He also believed that honest human beings were very lonely because they have no G-d to help them. Sartre epitomized the modern existentialist, because the belief in G-d, reason, and progress became shattered.
Albert Camus (1913-1960) was the leading French existentialist; he became extremely influential, and joined the French resistance. Him and Sartre offered powerful answers to moral issues and the contemporary crisis.
Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) A Danish religious philosopher, he rejected formalistic religion. He eventually religiously commited to a formalistic and majestic G-d.
The Curie’s Marie (1867-1934) a polish born physicist, and her husband Pierre discovered that radium constantly emits subatomic particles, which means it doesn’t have a constant weight.
Max Planck (1858-1957) built on the discoveries of the Curie’s, he said that energy is emitted in uneven little spurts which he called “Quanta” and not in even streams. His discovery called into question the old sharp theory, that matter was different then energy. The old view that atoms were the stable, building blocks of nature was badly shaken because of Planck.
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) A German Jew, Stated that matter and energy are interchangeable, and that even a particle of matter contains enormous amounts of potential energy. He also stated that the speed of light is the only thing constant from all frames of reference.
Neutron A subatomic particle, was the most important one, has the capacity to pass through other atoms. Led to the creation of the atomic bomb.
Sigmund Freud Said that human behavior is irrational; behavior is the outcome of conflict between the id (irrational unconscious driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires) and ego (rationalizing conscious, what one can do) and superego (ingrained moral values, what one should do).
Virginia Woolf used steam-of-consciousness technique; wrote Jacob’s Room, a novel made up of a series of internal monologues, in which ideas and emotions from different periods of a time bubble up as randomly as from a patient on a psychoanalyst’s couch.