 | Term | Definition |
| |
motivation |
a need or desire that energizes and directs behaviour |
| |
instinct |
behaviour that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned |
| |
drive-reduction theory |
physiological need creates an aroused tension (a drive) that motivates us to satisfy the need |
| |
homeostasis |
a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level |
| |
incentive |
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behaviour |
| |
hierarchy of needs |
Maslow's pyramid -beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active |
| |
glucose |
the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues |
| |
set point |
the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set |
| |
basal metabolic rate |
the body's resting rate of energy expenditure |
| |
anorexia nervosa |
an eating disorder in which a normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve |
| |
bulimia nervosa |
an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise |
| |
sexual response cycle |
the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters an Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution |
| |
refractory period |
a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm |
| |
sexual disorder |
a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning |
| |
estrogen |
a sex hormone, greater amounts by females than by males |
| |
testosterone |
the most important of the male sex hormones |
| |
sexual orientation |
an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex or the other sex |
| |
flow |
a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills |
| |
industrial-organizational psychology |
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behaviour in workplaces |
| |
personnel psychology |
a subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development |
| |
organizational psychology |
a subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change |
| |
structural interviews |
interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales |
| |
achievement motivation |
a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard |
| |
task leadership |
goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals |
| |
social leadership |
group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support |
| |
Sigmund Freud |
1856-1939; Field: psychoanalytic, personality; Contributions: id/ego/superego, reality and pleasure principles, ego ideal, defense mechanisms (expanded by Anna Freud), psychoanalysis, transference |
| |
Anna Freud |
1895-1982; Field: psychoanalysis; Contributions: focused on child psychoanalysis, fully developed defense mechanisms, emphasized importance of the ego and its constant struggle |
| |
Carl Jung |
1875-1961; Field: neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; Contributions: people had conscious and unconscious awareness; archetypes; collective unconscious; libido is all types of energy, not just sexual; Studies: dream studies/interpretation |
| |
Erik Erikson |
1902-1994; Field: neo-Freudian, humanistic; Contributions: 8-stage theory -show how people evolve through the life span. Each stage marked by “Who am I?” |
| |
Lawrence Köhlberg |
1927-1987; Field: cognition, moral development; Contributions: 6 stages of moral development (pre-conventional-rewards/punishments, conventional-social acceptance/law or against law, post-conventional-higher sense of morality |
| |
Carol Gilligan |
1936-pres; Field: cognition; Contributions: maintained that Köhlberg’s work was developed by only observing boys and overlooked girls who focus more on relationships than laws and principles |
| |
William James |
1842-1910; Field: functionalism; Contributions: Famous Book "Principles of Psychology" |
| |
William Wundt |
1832-1920; Field: structuralism, voluntarism; Contributions: introspection Studies: 1st psych lab in Germany |
| |
BF Skinner |
1904-1990; Field: behavioral; Contributions: operant conditioning-learning based on rewards and punishments. Studies: Skinner box |
| |
John B Watson |
1878-1958; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: generalization-inductive reasoning Studies: Little Albert |
| |
Jean Piaget |
1896-1980; Field: cognition; Contributions: created a 4-stage of children's cognitive development, schemas, theory of mind, assimilation and accommodation |
| |
Harry Harlow |
1905-1981; Field: development; Contributions: realized that touch is preferred in development; Studies: monkeys, studied attachment (wire mothers v. cloth mothers) |
| |
Carl Rogers |
1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: person-centered therapy, emphasized the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard |
| |
Abraham Maslow |
1908-1970; Field: humanism; Contributions: hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level nees have to be met-at the top-self-actualization |
| |
Karen Horney |
1885-1952; Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses |
| |
Alfred Adler |
1870-1937; Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: basic mistakes, style of life, inferiority/superiority complexes Studies: Birth Order |
| |
Gordon Allport |
1897-1967; Field: trait theory of personality; Contributions: list of 11,000 traits, 3 levels of traits-cardinal, central, and secondary |
| |
Hermann Rorschach |
1884-1922; Field: personality, psychoanalysis; Contributions: projective test, (Inkblot test) |
| |
Solomon Asch |
1907-1996; Field: social psychology; Contributions: studied conformity, found that individuals would conform even if they knew it was wrong; Studies: conformity, opinions and social pressures |
| |
Stanley Schachter |
1922-present; Field: emotion; Contributions: 2 factor theory-physiological happens first, cognitive appraisal must be made in order to experience emotion. |
| |
Stanley Milgram |
1933-1984; Field: social psychology; Contributions: obedience study-wanted to see how far individuals would go to be obedient; Studies: Shock Study |
| |
Philip Zimbardo |
1933-present; Field: social psychology; Contributions: proved that peoples behavior depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play; Studies: Stanford Prison Study-studied power of social roles to influence people’s behavior |
| |
Elizabeth Kübler-Ross |
1926-2004; Field: development; Contributions: 5 stages of death (denial, anger, bargaining with God, depression, acceptance) |
| |
Elizabeth Loftus |
1944-present; Field: memory; Contributions: eyewitness testimony (false memories or misinformation effect); Studies: Reconstruction of Auto destruction |
| |
Robert Sternberg |
1949-present; Field: intelligence; Contributions: devised Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (creative, analytical, practical) |
| |
Albert Bandura |
1925-present; Field: sociocultural; Contributions: observational learning. Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated ‘appropriate’ play with dolls, children mimicked play |
| |
Raymond Cattell |
1905-1998; Field: intelligence; Contributions: fluid & crystal intelligence; 3 domains of personality sphere (personality, ability, & motivation), 16 Personality Factors (personality test) |
| |
Aaron Beck |
1921-present; Field: cognitive; Contributions: father of Cognitive Therapy, created Beck Scales-depression inventory, hopelessness scale, suicidal ideation, anxiety inventory, and youth inventories |
| |
Noam Chomsky |
1928-present; Field: language; Contributions: disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language |
| |
Edward Thorndike |
1874-1949; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: Law of Effect-relationship between behavior and consequence; Studies: Law of Effect |
| |
HJ Eysenck |
1916-1997; Field: personality; Contributions: asserted that personality is largely determined by genes, used introversion/extroversion |
| |
Mary Ainsworth |
1913-1999; Field: development; Contributions: compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; Studies: The Strange Situation-observation of parent/child attachment |
| |
Kenneth Clark |
1914-2005; Field: social psychology; Contributions: research evidence of internalized racism Studies: Doll experiments-black children chose white dolls |
| |
Lev Vygotsky |
1896-1934; Field: child development; Contributions: how culture & interpersonal communication guide development, zone of proximal development; play research |
| |
Martin Seligman |
1942-present; Field: learning; Contributions: Positive Psychology, learned helplessness; Studies: Dogs demonstrating learned helplessness |
| |
Howard Gardner |
1943-present; Field: intelligence; Contributions: multiple intelligences (logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic) |
| |
Kurt Lewin |
1890-1947; Field: social psychology; Contributions: German refugee who escaped Nazis, proved the democratic style of leadership is the most productive; Studies: Leadership syles-studied effects of 3 leadership styles on children completing activities |
| |
Ivan Pavlov |
1891-1951; Field: behavior; Contributions: classical conditioning, a UCS naturally elicits a reflexive behavior; Studies: dog salivation |
| |
Hermann Ebbinghaus |
1850-1909; Field: memory; Contributions: :forgetting curve-a rapid loss followed by a gradual declining rate of loss; Studies: memory-series of meaningless syllables/words |
| |
Benjamin Whorf |
1897-1941; Field: language; Contributions: language determines the way we think |
| |
Robert Rosenthal |
1933-present; Field: social psychology; Contributions: nonverbal communication, self-fulfilling prophecies; Studies: Pygmalion Effect-effect of teacher’s expectations on students |
| |
Judith Langlois |
dates ?; Field: developmental; Contributions: social development & processing, effects of appearance on behavior, origin of social stereotypes, sex/love/intimacy, facial expression |
| |
David Rosenhan |
dates?; Field: social psychology; Contributions: proved that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, your care would not be very good in a mental health setting; Studies: Hospital experiment-checked into hospital to check diagnosis |
| |
Daniel Goleman |
1946-present; Field: intelligence; Contributions: emotional intelligence |
| |
Charles Spearman |
1863-1945; Field: intelligence; Contributions: specific mental talents were highly correlated, general "g" factor for intelligence |
| |
Albert Ellis |
1913-2007; Field: cognitive-behavioral; Contributions: Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET), focuses on altering client’s patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotions |
| |
Harry Stack Sullivan |
1892-1949; Field: psychoanalysis; Contributions: groundwork for enmeshed relationships, developed the Self-System-a configuration of personality traits |
| |
Robert Yerkes |
187601956; Field: intelligence, comparative; Contributions: social behavior of gorillas/chimps, Yerkes-Dodson law-level of arousal as related to performance |
| |
Alfred Binet |
1857-1911; Field: testing; Contributions: IQ tests, test to identify slow learners in need of remediation-not applicable in the U.S. because too culture-bound (French) |
| |
Little Albert |
ca. 1920; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: subject in John Watson’s experiment, proved classical conditioning principles: Studies: Little Albert-generalization of fear |
| |
Karl Wernicke |
1848-1905; Field: perception; Contributions: temporal lobe -language understanding; Studies: person damaged in this area uses correct words but they do not make sense |
| |
Ernst Weber |
1795-1878; Field: perception; Contributions: just-noticeable-difference (JND) that eventually becomes Weber’s law; Studies: 1st study on JND |
| |
Gustav Fechner |
1801-1887; Field: perception; Contributions: stated that the magnitude of a sensory experience is proportionate to the # of JND’s that the stimulus causing the experiences above the absolute threshold |
| |
Mary Cover-Jones |
1896-1987; Field: learning; Contributions: systematic desensitization, maintained that fear could be unlearned |
| |
Robert Zajonc |
1923-present; Field: motivation; Contributions: believes that we invent explanations to label feelings |
| |
Henry Murray |
1893-1988; Field: intelligence, testing; Contributions: devised Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) |
| |
Paul Ekman |
1934-present; Field: emotion; Contributions: facial expressions are universal |
| |
Clark Hull |
1884-1952; Field: motivation; Contributions: maintains that the goal of all motivated behavior is the reduction or alleviation of a drive state, mechanism through which reinforcement operates |
| |
David McClelland |
1917-1998; Field: intelligence, testing; Contributions: devised a way to measure Murray’s theory (TAT), developed scoring system for TAT’s use in assessing achievement motivation, not the TAT |
| |
Francis Galton |
1822-1911; Field: differential psychology; Contributions: behavioral genetics, maintains that personality & ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance; human traits are inherited Studies: & “Law of Errors”-differences in intellectual ability |
| |
Charles Darwin |
1809-1882; Field: geology, biology; Contributions: natural selection, evolution Studies: “The Origin of Species” catalogs his voyage on the Beagle |
| |
Lewis Terman |
1877-1956; Field: intelligence; Contributions: revised Binet’s IQ test |
| |
Phineas Gage |
1823-1860; Field: neurobiology; Contributions: 1st person to have a frontal lobotomy (by accident) |
| |
William Sheldon |
1898-1977; Field: personality; Contributions: theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by genetic endowment: endomorphic (large), mesomorphic (average), and ectomorphic (skinny) |
| |
David Weschler |
1896-1981; Field: testing; Contributions: best known intelligence test (WAIS) |
| |
Walter B. Cannon |
1871-1945; Field: motivation; Contributions: gastric activity as in empty stomach, is sole basis for hunger; Studies: balloons in stomachs |
| |
neuron |
basic building block of the nervous system |
| |
dendrite |
receives neurotransmitters |
| |
axon |
carries the neurotransmitters |
| |
myelin sheath |
insulates axon-speeds transmission |
| |
action potential |
a brief electrical impulse that travels down an axon-positive ions rush in (depolarizing) |
| |
threshold |
level of stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse |
| |
synapse |
junction between axon terminal (sender) of the neuron and the dendrite receiver of neuron. |
| |
neurotransmitters |
chemical messengers that alter moods |
| |
acetylcholine |
involved in learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction-associated with Alzheimers |
| |
endorphins |
"morphine within"- natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure |
| |
nervous system |
body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system |
| |
central nervous system |
brain and spinal cord |
| |
peripheral nervous system |
sensory and motor neurons -connect the central nervous system (CNS) to rest of body |
| |
nerves |
neural "cables" containing many axons |
| |
sensory neurons |
carry incoming information from senses to the brain |
| |
motor neurons |
carry outgoing information from brain to the muscles and glands |
| |
interneurons |
communication between sensory neurons and motor neurons |
| |
somatic nervous system |
controls the body's skeletal muscles' skeletal nervous system |
| |
autonomic nervous system |
controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs; sympathetic, parasympathetic |
| |
sympathetic nervous system |
arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations |
| |
parasympathetic system |
calms the body, conserving its energy |
| |
reflex |
automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus |
| |
neural networks |
interconnected neural cells |
| |
endocrine system |
body's "slow" chemical communication system; set of glands that secrete hormones into bloodstream |
| |
hormones |
chemical messengers manufactured by endocrine glands |
| |
adrenal glands |
secretes adrenaline and arouses body in times of stress |
| |
pituitary gland |
regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands (part of limbic system) |
| |
lesion |
tissue destruction |
| |
brainstem |
oldest part and central core of the brain, survival functions |
| |
medulla |
base of brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing |
| |
reticular formation |
part of brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal |
| |
thalamus |
brain's sensory switchboard, top of brainstem-sends information to the correct part of the brain |
| |
cerebellum |
"little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; movement, balance, implicit memory |
| |
limbic system |
emotional epicenter-(hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, amygdala) |
| |
amygdala |
lined to fear and agression |
| |
hypothalamus |
regulates activities (hunger,thirst sex, body temperature) |
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cerebral cortex |
covers the cerebral hemispheres |
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glial cells |
cells that support, nourish, and protect neurons |
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frontal lobes |
responsible for personality, organization, judgment, language formation |
| |
parietal lobe |
lobe lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; touch and body position |
| |
occipital lobe |
lobe at the back of the head; vision |
| |
temporal lobes |
lobe above the ears; hearing and comprehension |
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motor cortex |
in the frontal lobe-controls voluntary movements |
| |
sensory cortex |
in the parietal lobe-registers and processes body touch and movement sensations |
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association areas |
areas of the cerebral cortex not involved in primary motor or sensory functions |
| |
aphasia |
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or Wernicke's area |
| |
Broca's area |
in frontal lobe- repsonsible for language formation (speaking) |
| |
Wernicke's area |
in temporal lobe- repsonsible for comprehension-understanding |
| |
plasticity |
brain's capacity for modification |
| |
corpus callusum |
fiber tissue that connects the two hemispheres of the brain |
| |
split brain |
condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers between them |
| |
hindsight bias |
after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it ("i knew it all along" phenomenon) |
| |
critical thinking |
thinking that doesn't blindly accept arguments and conclusions |
| |
theory |
explanation that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events |
| |
hypothesis |
testable prediction, educated guess |
| |
operational definition |
defining the research variables |
| |
replication |
repeating the essence of the study with more participants |
| |
case study |
one person'group is studied in depth in hope of revealing universal principles |
| |
survey |
self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative |
| |
false consensus effect |
overestimating the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors |
| |
population |
all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study |
| |
random sample |
each member has an equal chance of inclusion |
| |
naturalistic observation |
observing and recording behavior in naturally situations |
| |
correlation |
extent to which two variables have a relationship-seeing how well either factor predicts the other |
| |
scatterplot |
graphed cluster of dots, representing the values of 2 variables |
| |
illusory correlation |
perception of a relationship where none exists |
| |
experiment |
does A cause B? Manipulation of independent variable to see response of the dependent variable. |
| |
double-blind procedure |
both the research participants and research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo |
| |
placebo effect |
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavioir caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent |
| |
control |
condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment |
| |
random assignment |
everyone has the chance to be selected to be a part of the experimental or control group |
| |
independent variable |
the manipulated variable. |
| |
dependent variable |
variable that changes based on the manipulation of the other variable (does studying cause good grades?) |
| |
mode |
most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution |
| |
mean |
the average |
| |
median |
middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it |
| |
range |
subtracting the lowest from the highest |
| |
standard devation |
how much the scores vary from the mean |
| |
statistical significance |
statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance |
| |
culture |
enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next |
| |
developmental psychology |
studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span |
| |
zygote |
fertilized egg; 2-week period-develops into an embyro |
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embryo |
2 weeks after fertilization through the 2nd month |
| |
fetus |
9 weeks after conception to birth |
| |
teratogens |
agents-chemicals and viruses, can reach embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm |
| |
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) |
physical and cognitive abnormalities caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking (small brain, low birthrate, retardation) |
| |
rooting reflex |
when touched on cheek, turn toward touch, open mouth, and search for nipple (innate) |
| |
habituation |
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation |
| |
maturation |
biological growth- uninfluenced by experience |
| |
schema |
framework for understanding- organizes and interprets information |
| |
assimulation |
interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas |
| |
accomodation |
adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information |
| |
cognition |
mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
| |
sensorimotor stage |
Piaget (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities |
| |
object permanence |
things continue to exist even when not perceived |
| |
preoperational stage |
Piaget's (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) develops language but does NOT yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic |
| |
conservation |
Develops in pre-operational-properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects |
| |
egocentrism |
Piaget-child's difficulty taking another's point of view |
| |
theory of mind |
people's ideas about their own and others' mental states - about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behaviours these might predict |
| |
autism |
a disorder marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind |
| |
concrete operational stage |
Piaget, (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) logical, concrete thought |
| |
formal operational stage |
Piaget (normally beginning about age 12) during which people being to think about abstract concepts-hypotheticals |
| |
stranger anxiety |
fear of strangers beginning about 8 months |
| |
attachment |
an emotional tie with another person; to the caregiver and showing distress on separation |
| |
critical period |
an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development |
| |
imprinting |
process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life |
| |
basic trust |
Erik Erikson, a sense that world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers |
| |
self-concept |
a sense of one's identity and personal worth |
| |
adolescence |
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence |
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puberty |
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing |
| |
primary sex characteristics |
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible |
| |
secondary sex characteristics |
nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair |
| |
menarche |
first menstrual period |
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identity |
one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles |
| |
intimacy |
in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood |
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menopause |
cessation of menstruation |
| |
Alzheimer's disease |
a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning |
| |
cross-sectional study |
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another |
| |
longitudinal study |
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period |
| |
crystallized intelligence |
accumulated knowledge and verbal skills;tends to increase with age |
| |
fluid intelligence |
reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease late adulthood |
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social clock |
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement |
| |
social psychology |
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. |
| |
attribution theory |
how we explain someone’s behavior-- by crediting either situation or person’s disposition. |
| |
fundamental attribution error |
analyzing another’s behavior, underestimating the situation and overestimating personal disposition. |
| |
attitude |
feelings that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events. |
| |
cognitive dissonance theory |
we act to reduce discomfort (dissonance) we feel when our thoughts (cognitions) and actions are inconsistent. EX: think studying is for nerds, then you study, you have to change your thought because you can't change your behavior. |
| |
conformity |
adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. |
| |
normative social influence |
influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. |
| |
informational social influence |
influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality. |
| |
social facilitation |
stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. |
| |
social loafing |
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts |
| |
deindividuation |
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. |
| |
group polarization |
enhancement of a group’s prevailing extreme feelings through group discussion |
| |
groupthink |
desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. |
| |
prejudice |
an unjustifiable attitude toward a group and its members. generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action. |
| |
stereotype |
a generalized (overgeneralized) belief about a group of people. |
| |
discrimination |
in classical conditioning, learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. |
| |
ingroup |
"Us"--people with whom one shares a common identity. |
| |
outgroup |
"Them"--those perceived as different or apart from one’s ingroup. |
| |
ingroup bias |
tendency to favor one’s own group. |
| |
scapegoat theory |
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame. |
| |
aggression |
any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy. |
| |
conflict |
a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. |
| |
social trap |
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. |
| |
mere exposure effect |
exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them. |
| |
passionate love |
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually at the beginning. |
| |
companionate love |
deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined. |
| |
equity |
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it. |
| |
altruism |
unselfish regard for the welfare of others. |
| |
bystander effect |
bystander less likely to help in a crowd (must notice, see it as an emergency, and take responsibility for it) |
| |
social exchange theory |
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. |
| |
negative reinforcement |
Mrs. Smith's 4th grade class doesn't have to take this week's spelling test because they had perfect attendance last week. |
| |
personality |
an individual's characteristic PATTERN of thinking, feeling, and acting |
| |
free association |
in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing when prompted by therapist |
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psychoanalysis |
Freud's theory - attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts |
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unconscious |
Freud- reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. Today's psychologists-information processing of which we are unaware |
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id |
unconscious psychic energy strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification |
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ego |
largely conscious, "executive" part of personality mediates among demands of the id, superego, and reality |
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superego |
represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations |
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psychosexual stages |
stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones |
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Oedipus complex |
Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father |
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identification |
Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos |
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fixation |
Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved |
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defense mechanisms |
ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality |
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repression |
basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness |
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regression |
individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated |
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reaction formation |
ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites |
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projection |
people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others |
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rationalization |
self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions |
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displacement |
shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet |
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collective unconscious |
Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history |
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projective test |
Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics |
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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) |
a people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes |
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Rorshach inkblot test |
the most widely used projective test,10 inkblots, Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots |
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terror-management theory |
proposes that faith in one's worldview and the pursuit of self-esteem provide protection against a deeply rooted fear of death |
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self-actualization |
according to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential |
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unconditional positive regard |
according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person |
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self-concept |
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" |
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trait |
a characteristic PATTERN of behaviour or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports |
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personality inventory |
a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviours |
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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) |
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests; originally developed to identify emotional disorders, this test is now used for many other screening purposes |
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empirically derived test |
a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups |
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social-cognitive perspective |
views behaviour as influenced by the interaction between persons (and their thinking) and their social context |
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reciprocal determinism |
the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors |
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personal control |
our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless |
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external locus of control |
outside forces beyond one's personal control determine one's fate |
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internal locus of control |
one controls one's own fate |
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learned helplessness |
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events |
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positive psychology |
the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive |
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spotlight effect |
overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders |
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self-esteem |
one's feelings of high or low self-worth |
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self-serving bias |
a readiness to perceive oneself favourably |
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consciousness |
our awareness of ourselves and our environment |
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biological rhythms |
periodic physiological fluctuations |
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circadian rhythm |
biological clock; 24/25-hour cycle. regular bodily functions |
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REM sleep |
rapid eye movement sleep, recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur |
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alpha waves |
relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state (stage 1) |
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sleep |
periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness- as distinct from unconsciouness resulting from acoma, general anesthesia, or hibernation |
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hallucinations |
false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus |
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delta waves |
large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep (stages 3 and 4) |
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insomnia |
recurring problems in falling and staying asleep |
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narcolepsy |
uncontrollable sleep attacks |
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sleep apnea |
sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings |
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night terrors |
an appearance of being terrified; occur during Stage 4 sleep, seldom remembered |
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dream |
sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind |
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manifest content |
Freud-the story line of a dream |
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latent content |
Freud- the underlying meaning of a dream (like snake = death) |
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REM rebound |
tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation |
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