Set: Micro Exam 2

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All 171 Terms

Term Definition
facultative anaerobe E. coli, able to survive in the colon of as feces outside.
metabolism all the biochemical reactions that take place in the cell. tasks consist of bringing nutrients in to the cell, catabolism, biosynthesis, polymerization, and assembly. overall this is dedicated to reproduction
precursor metabolites the 12 starter compounds that are needed provided by the catabolic pathways. this is when nutrients are converted into a group of organic compounds and act as a starting point to synthesize all other cellular compounds.
reducing power compunds that participate in various essential reductive biochemical reactions, the product of catabolism along with ATP
biosynthesis the third task of metabolism is to make all the small molecules the cell needs
polymerization the fourth step of metabolism when the monomers produced by biosynthesis are chemically hooked together to produce the cell's macromolecules
assembly the final task of metabolism when some macromolecules are assembled to make cellular organelles.
porin the tiny water-filled pores in the outer membrane. they are formed by proteins and are the site that allows the nutrients to pass through.
permeases found in the phospholipid matrix of the cytoplasmic membrane that allows a way for the hydrophillic nutrients across the impassable wall. these transport proteins bind to nutrients in the periplasm, carry it through the membrane, and release it in the cytoplasm.
facilitated diffusion when a few nurtients cross the cell membrane, the concentration of this inside the cell is slightly less than it is outside,
active transport the passage of nutrients into the cell through the action of transporters that increase the concentration of nutrients inside the cell. they pump nutrients into the cell
group translocation an energy requiring process that aims to concentrate nutrients inside the cell. this process chemically changes the nutrients as it is concentrated, the nutrient enters the cell by facilitated diffusion
substrates compounds that are starting points of a pathway or reactants of enzymes
metabolic intermediates compounds formed by one reaction in catabolic pathways and used by subsequent reactions
oxidation lose of electrons from a metabolic intermediate...common in the catabolic pathway. when H is lost as well, it is called dehydrogenation
reduction gain of electrons from a metabolic intermediate. when H atoms are gained as well, it is called hydrogenation
reducing power the cell's reserve of H atoms, these are used to reduce metabolic intermediates and thereby drive subsequent steps in cellluar synthesis. can also be used to generate ATP. it is created in many dehydrogenation reactions that occur in catabolic pathway
substrate-level phosphorlytation ADP obtains a phosphate group attached to a metabolic intermediate by a high-energy bond. the high reactivity of the bond in the metabolic intermediate enables the phosphate group to be transferred to ADP, converting it to ATP. however, most phosphate-containing metabolic intermediates do not contain high energy bonds and can not be used to generate ATP.
chemiosmosis forms ATP from ADP by means of an enzyme called ATPase. this enzyme catalyzes the conversion of ADP to ATP as a result of a series of chemical events that occur in and around a membrane. this energy for the formation of ATP is a concentration gradient formed across the membrane.
terminal electron acceptor the compound at the end of an electron chain. in the case of aerobic respiration, it is oxygen. by accepting electrons from the electron transport chain, oxygen in reduced to water.
glycolysis start with glucose and end with pyruvate; a little ATP (from substrate-level phosphorylation) and some reducing power (NADH)
TCA cycle one of the three pathways involved in catabolism. converts pyruvate into acetyl coA into lots of reducing power, a little ATP and releases 2 CO2
pentose phosphate pathway one of the three catabolic pathways that produces a little reducing power, more CO2 and one phosphate
biosynthesis the stage of the metabolic factory that uses precursor metabolits, ATP, and reducing power. to construct the small molecules it needs
folic acid needed for nucleic acids, made by E. coli, but humans must get it from their diet
prototroph bacteria that can make everything it needs to grow and reproduce from a single colon source (glucose)
auxotroph bacteria that are missing something; therefore in order for bacteria to grow you have to supply the essential need of the bacteria
Polymerization the stage of metabolism that produces macromolecules and the most energy is used
assembly the final stage of metabolism that requires less energy, bacause of the natural assembly that some experience, like flagella, simple viruses, and ribosomes. some that are more complex, need energy for and are catalyzed by an enzyme
anaerobic metabolism process used to make ATP in the absense of oxygen. ATP is made by chemiosmosis. It needs to use a different terminal electron acceptor (E. coli uses nitrate or fumarate). Most commonly uses sulfate reduction and produces H sulfide
fermentation a form of anaerobic metabolism, no ATP by chemiosmosis (only substrate level phosphorylation). produces a lot less ATP than aerobic respiration . an abundance of substrate is necessary. products include lactic acid and ethanol.
lactic acid bacteria fermentation lactose + Beta-galactosidase --> glucose +galactose --> pyruvate + lactic acid +ADP
meme belief or information pased from one ear to another
Streptococcus pneumonia the cause of pneumonia and ear aches, Avery used this to explain his transformation principle.
transformation principle a theory by Oswald Avery, which concluded that DNA can transform, which causes antibiotic resistance, but protein and CHO causes no change
allosteric proteins regulates the activity of an enzyme or a protein once it has been synthesized
effectors signal molecules that can bind to an allosteric enzyme to either increase or decrease the rate of enzymatic reaction.
end-product inhibition a feedback mechanism in a biosynthetic pathway that is allosterically regulated. the end product of the pathway is the allosteric effector. the end-product (effector) binds to the enzyme that catalyzes the first reaction in that pathway and inhibits its catalytic activity
allosteric activation a metabolic process that is activated an allosteric protein by a rise in intracellular concentration
replication the process by which DNA is precisely duplicated
gene expression the process by which the information stored in DNA is used to tell the cell what to do. this process determines what kinds of protein and RNA are made.
templates the old strands that are used in replication to make new strands of DNA
semi-conservative replication describes the process of replication because the double helixes are composed of one new and one old or conserved cell
DNA helicase an enzyme in the replication apparatus that moves the fork by unwinding and separating the strands of the old double helix
single-strand binding protein a protein in the replication apparatus that binds to the single strands of DNA and keeps them separate during replication
DNA polymerase III an enzyme in the replication apparatus that synthesizes the two new single strands by joining the nucleoside triphosphates paired with exposed bases on the single strand. it makes a polymer of DNA that is just added to the end
primase an enzyme in the replication apparatus that is responsible for making RNA primer
DNA polymerase I an enzyme in the repication apparatus that is responsible for removing the RNA primer while replacing it with DNA..
DNA ligase an enzyme of the replication apparatus that seals the gap between the newly synthesized fragment of DNA and the continuous strand in front of it
transcription the cell's genetic plan, contained in DNA, is rewritten in the form of RNA molecules (mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA)
RNA polymerase the enzyme of the transcription processthat links the nucleotides together, forming a strand of RNA (instead of DNA polymerase III in the replication apparatus). acts as the start site for transcription (promotor) and produces mRNA
translation the process of using the genetic information from the RNA to make protein. amino acids are linked together in the proper order to make a specific protein macromolecule
mRNA carries the information in translation that determines the order of amino acids in a protein
tRNA the actual translator in translation between the mRNA and the protein
rRNA a component of ribosomes where translation occurs
anticodon the mRNA recognizing end of a tRNA. it consists of three adjacent bases on tRNA pair with a complementary condon on mRNA. this link positions the tRNA bound amino acid so that it can be linked to other amino acids in the proper sequence to make a particular protein.
nonsense codons three codons that do not respond to the anticodon of any tRNA molecules. they stop the translation
genetic code the correspondence between the codons in mRNA and amino acids
Shine-Delgarno sequence the ribosome-binding site. the sequence on mRNA before a start codon that ribosomes bind to.
operator protein that binds to specific regions of DNA that are close to a gene's promoter (where RNA polymeerase normally binds)
operon a set of genes that is regulated and transcribed together
lac operon a set of inducible enzymes that confer the ability to use lactose as a growth substance
lac Y an enzyme of the lac operon, galactosidase premease, which brings the lactose into the cell (lactose is a disaccharide)
lac Z an enzyme in the lac operon, beta-galactosidase, which splits lactose into its monosaccharides
allolactose an efector that can bind to the lac repressor when lactose is present in order to change it so that it no londer binds to the lac operator
lac I a gene which encodes the DNA-binding site which regulates expression of the lac operonwhen a small amount of lactose is present, the allactose binds ot the lac operator and causes the lac operon to transcibe and express genes,
genome sum total of all the DNA a cell contains
DNA chromosome in prokaryotes this thing is circular, and is made up of genes. in E. coli it contains approc. 5,000 different genes, and in humans, we have about 25,000 different genes
plasmids small DNA structures that are contained by most bacteria in addition to other chromosomes. they contain genes that are nonessential for growth, R-factors, pili-formation genes, and the ability to make certain disease-causing toxins.
R-factors resistance factors found in bacteria against antibiotics
genotype the genetic plan an organism has in its chromosome and plasmid
phenotype appearance or function of the bacteria
substitution mutation a mutation that involves a base change
deletion mutation a mutation that involves losing some of the sequence
inversion mutation a mutation that involves inversion of one section of the DNA segment
transposition/insertion mutation a mutation that involves inserting a portion of DNA into the strand
duplication mutation a mutation that involves duplication of a region of DNA on the same strand
spontaneous mutations often the result of errors in replication, can find the rate of this by the number of mutations per cell generation.
general result of mutations nothing (doesn't change anything), detrimental (it could have a lage impact), lethal (kill), beneficial (survival of the microorganism)
induced mutations mutations that are caused by chemical, physical, or biological treatments
mutagen an agent that induce mutation
chemical mutagens chemicals that react with a component of DNA and change it in some way
physical mutagens UV light, x-rays, gamma radiation, and decay of radioactive elements. UV converts bases into thymine dimers, which causes the repair systems to try to repair the damaged region at the cost of accuracy. X-rays have a lot of energy and can be damaging (break a backbone of DNA and can cause loss of DNA)
transposing moving from one part of the genome to another, the work of some mutated sequences of DNA.
transposable elements mutations that can move from place to place within a genome
missense a specific type of substitution mutation that codes for different amino acids
nonsense a specific type of substitution mutation that codes for a stop codon. the protein is therefor incomplete or shorter
silent a specific type of substitution mutation that is different, but both codons are for the same amino acid
replicion it cannot replicate by itself
transformation one form of genetic exchange in bacteria when DNA leaves one cell, exists in the extracellular environment, and is then taken into another cell, where it may become incorporated into the genome.
Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia and earache
Neisseria gonnorrhea gonnorhea
conjugation one form of genetic exchange in bacteria which is like sex in bacteria. sex pillus connects two bacteria and pills the two together, a special kind of replication of the bacteria's replication occurs, rolling circle replication, and is copied into the other cell.
transduction one form of genetic exchange in bacteria when some of the viruses that infect bacteria (called bacteriophages) reproduce themselves
generalized transduction transfers any portion of the bacterial chromosome from one cell to another. it is mediated by virulent phages (phages that always kill their host)
specialized transduction prophages are inserted only at a specific site on the bacterial chromosome, only those bacterial genes adjacent to this site can be transferred by specialized transduction. it is mediated by cells that can be carried passively within their host without harming it
genetics of antibiotic resistance antibiotic resistance genes have been around long before Flemming discovered penicillin, are usually carried on a plasmid, and the normal function is not clear
antibiotic inhibition target of antibiotic is changed, the bacteria is anle to pump the antibiotic right back out, or the antibiotic is destroyed
streptomyces found in the soil, streptomycin and tetracycline
bacillus bacitracin
penicillium penicillun
cephalosprium cephalosporin
binary fission means of duplication for bacteria. the cleavage near the midpoint to form two daughter cells of approximately equal size
doubling time period required for cells in a microbial population to enlarge, divide, and produce two new cells for each one that existed before.
growth rate doubling times per hour. used to descrine how fast a culture is growing
exponential growth an almost explosive increase in the numbers and mass of cells. it is one of the phases of the phases of growth
growth curve log phase, exponential phase, stationary phase, death phase
chemostat an apparatus that uses a metering pump to transfer fresh medium continuously from a reservoir to a growth vessel fitted with an overflow. culture (cells and partially spent medium)leaves the growth vessel as rapidly as fresh medium enters
colony a mass of pure culture cells in a petri dish of a solid medium
free radicals highly reactive molecules. some of these are the toxic product created by aerobic metabolism (hydrogen peroxide H2O2, hydroxyl free radical OH. , superoxide O2-.
hydrogen peroxide used to deal with reactive molecules, H2O2 --> (catalase) --> 2H2O + O2
superoxide a direct-by product of aerobic metabolism that helps to deal with reactive molecules (2O2-. + 2H --> (superoxide dismutase) --> H2O2 + O2
Nitrogen used by amino acids and proteins, third most common element to make up the dry weight of most organisms
Phosphorus lipids, ATP, DNA
Sulfur found in some aminoacids and some proteins
trace elements act as cofactors or coenzymes to help bring substrates together so they can interact
organic growth factors unidentified growth factors that some bacteria need (ex. auxotrophs need something special)
thermophiles microbes that can grow at high temperatures
mesophiles grow at moderate temperatures. all the pathogens (37 C)
psychrophiles grow at lower temperature, less than or equal to 5 C)...refrigerator
Pseudomonus spp species of psychrophiles
Listeria monoeytogenes a psychrophile that can cause neurological diseases commonly dound on deli meats and in milk
barophiles bacteria that are able to grow at high pressure in the ocean, have a special means to not collapse
acidophiles can grow at low pH, like in coal mines
Lacto bacillus acidophile that grows in the vagina
alkaliphiles can grow at high pH, like the lakes out west
halophiles cells that have a high salt concentration outside of the cell and the cell doesn't collapse. it increases the solute iside and makes priline and trehalose. these are adapted to grow well in high salt concentration environments, but explode in distilled water, unlike normal pathogens
measuring bacteria turbidity, metabolic activity (color, CO2), dry weight, direct count (individual cells), plate count (colonies), Most probable number, and Filtration
counting chamber manually observe the number of bacteria on a grid. greater that one cell per ml in a 1-2 ml sample
coulter counter automated instrument and it automatically counts the number of cells in greater than 1 cell/ml in a 1-2 ml sample
plate count make a ten-fold dillution, too many colonies would be seen if you didn't dillute
most probable number need to dilue sample, and count the number of tubes that are turbid or clear
filtration used when you have a large volume of solution with a little bacteria that you are sampling . less than 1 cell/ml of sample
sterilization destroy all microbial life
disinfect (sanitize) reduce the number of pathogens to a safe level. used on inanimate objects
decontaminate render an instrument or a surface safe to handle
antisepsis kill microbes on skin or other tissue
microbiostatic inhibit rather than kill microbes (ie. refrigeration)
microcidal kill microbial cells
chemotherapeutic agents drugs (chemicals) used to treat disease
germicide an antimicrobial agent the kills....like disinfectants and antiseptics
germistats an antimicrobial agent that inhibits
D-value the time it takes to kill 90% of cells at a certain temperature
thermal death point lowest temperature to kill all microbes in a liquid in 10 minutes
Clostridium botulinum causes botulism, a danger in canning, if you don't heat for long enough to kill this bacteria, the spores will germinate and release neurotoxins
Listeria monocytogenes a microbe that can grow in the cold, unlike most others which are inhibited by the cold
microbial control cold, uv light, gamma or x-ray radiation, osmotic strength, phenol and phenolics, alcohols, halogens, heavy metals, surfactants, other oxidizing agents, alkylating agents
phenol an example of microbial control that is used to denature proteins
phenolics an example of microbial control that is able to kill microorganisms by denaturing vital cellular proteins, enzymes, and lipids
cresol common ingredient of household and hospital disinfectant because they remain active even in the presence of blood and feces....a type of phenol
lysol the most common phenol or phenolic.
hexachlorophene a phenolic that is a very effective antiseptic. has been replaced by chlorohexidine
ethanol and isopropanol alcohols that are widely used as skin antiseptics
oxidizing agents pick up electrons, cause other groups to be oxidized (SH, NH2, and OH)
iodine a halogen that is an antiseptic on the skin
chlorine a halogen that is a disinfectant in pools
heavy metals modify SH groups of proteins. like mercury and silver nitrate
surfactants compounds that have hydrophobic/phillic parts. soaps and detergents, antibacterial soap (contains triclosan), and anionic and cationic surfactants (cepacol and zephiran)
hydrogen peroxide an oxidizing agent that can kill a large number of bacteria. H2O2
alkylating agents agents that immobilize bacteria by causing them to cross-link their proteins, become immobilized, become unable to reproduce or function with enzymes. formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, ethylene oxide
ethylene oxide a gaseous sterilizing/alkylating agent and is used to sterilize equipment in many hospital settings. kills microbes on the surface inside of a chamber
blanching the process of plinging vegetables into boiling water, will kills enzymes that would cause denaturation of enzymes that would decompose the vegetable
Clostridium perfringes a bacteria that produces spores. if the spores germinate, they will produce neurotixins like the boltulinum.
pasteurization a special heat treatment used to control microorganisms in milk, dairy products, whine, and beer. temperatures are too low to sterilize, but does kill most pathogens. it decreases the total number of microbial cells present and therby delays spoilage. it causes minimal damage to the product
Mycobacterium bovis a bacteria found from cow
bacteria found in milk listeria, brucella, and salmonella
sodium sulfite a chemical used to preserve food and inhibit the growth of bacteria, people often experience food intolerances to this
clones identical members due to binary fission, they are not identical due to mutations
strain a clone that is isolated from a different time or different place
phage typing determining the pattern oof bacterial strains attacked by a set of bacteriophages (viruses that attack bacteria)
DNA hybridization break the DNA strands, add a probe tagged with flourescent tag. this tag proves when it is bound to a specifc genome, like salmonella, if no salmonella is found, no tag will glow.

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Terms 171
Creator nicholhm
Created October 15, 2007
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nicholhm : Changed transposable elements → a mutation that can move from place to place within a genome to transposable elements → mutations that can move from place to place within a genome
nicholhm : Changed hydroen peroxide → an oxidizing agent that can kill a large number of bacteria. H2O2 to hydrogen peroxide → an oxidizing agent that can kill a large number of bacteria. H2O2
nicholhm : Changed cresols → common ingredient of household and hospital disinfectant because they remain active even in the presence of blood and feces....a type of phenol to cresol → common ingredient of household and hospital disinfectant because they remain active even in the presence of blood and feces....a type of phenol
nicholhm : Changed precurson metabolites → the 12 starter compounds that are needed provided by the catabolic pathways. this is when nutrients are converted into a group of organic compounds and act as a starting point to synthesize all other cellular compounds. to precursor metabolites → the 12 starter compounds that are needed provided by the catabolic pathways. this is when nutrients are converted into a group of organic compounds and act as a starting point to synthesize all other cellular compounds.
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Most Missed Words

  1. porin → the tiny water-filled pores in the outer membrane. they are formed by proteins and are the site that allows the nutrients to pass through. - 2 misses
  2. substrate-level phosphorlytation → ADP obtains a phosphate group attached to a metabolic intermediate by a high-energy bond. the high reactivity of the bond in the metabolic intermediate enables the phosphate group to be transferred to ADP, converting it to ATP. however, most phosphate-containing metabolic intermediates do not contain high energy bonds and can not be used to generate ATP. - 2 misses
  3. allosteric proteins → regulates the activity of an enzyme or a protein once it has been synthesized - 2 misses
  4. allosteric activation → a metabolic process that is activated an allosteric protein by a rise in intracellular concentration - 2 misses
  5. single-strand binding protein → a protein in the replication apparatus that binds to the single strands of DNA and keeps them separate during replication - 2 misses
  6. DNA polymerase I → an enzyme in the repication apparatus that is responsible for removing the RNA primer while replacing it with DNA.. - 2 misses
  7. nonsense codons → three codons that do not respond to the anticodon of any tRNA molecules. they stop the translation - 2 misses