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Gravity
Terms in this set (225)
Erik Erikson's 8 stages of development
trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs diffusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs self-absorption, integrity vs despair
Freud's Psychoanalytic and Psychosexual Development Theory
Two basic drives sex and aggression, 5 stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
Oral Stage
birth to 18 months
Anal Stage
2 to 3 years
Phallic Stage
3 to 5 years
Latency Stage
6 years to puberty
Genital Stage
puberty to adulthood
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
schemas of assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration; stages sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
preconventional morality, conventional morality, post conventional morality
Electra Complex
same an oedipus complex but for girls, occurs during the phallic stage
John Bowlby
bonding with an adult before 3 years is vital, if not will cause abnormal behavior
Harry Harlow
worked with monkeys on attachment and believe it was innate, isolation lead to autistic abnormal behavior
Konrad Lorenz
imprinting ducks will follow the first moving object the see
Critical Periods (Lorenz)
certain behaviors must be learned at specific stages or they will not be learned at all
Genotype
genetic makeup of an organism
Phenotype
physical or biochemical characteristics determined by genetics and the environment
Tabula Rasa
John Locke, a child is born with an unformed mind that develops through experience, blank slate
Plasticity
the smooth transition from one stage of development to the next
Human Development
learning, cognitive, psychoanalytic, humanistic
Levinson's The Seasons of a Man's Life
book about study of adult males, life into 4 periods; preadulthood to 17 years, early adulthood starting at 17 to 22, middle adulthood starting at 40 to 45, older adult starting at 60 to 65, midlife crisis
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
person must first satisfy basic needs (food/shelter) before higher needs (love/security)
Gesell's Maturationist Theory
development is a biological process independent from environmental influences
Behaviorism Theory of Learning
learning is a change of behavior caused by consequences of behaviors, Watson, Skinner, Thorndike
Law of Effect (Thorndike)
a behavior followed by a reward is is strengthened and more likely repeated
Rogers
person centered, people are eventually good, move toward self-actualization
Berne
transactional analysis, each person has 3 ego states, parent, adult, child
Freud
psychoanalysis, biological instincts and development through psychosexual stages
Ellis
rational emotive behavior therapy: person's instincts are rational and irrational but can be taught
Perls
gestalt: people are whole and complete but effect by environment. organizing experience determines learning
Glasser
reality therapy: people have needs of food/shelter plus the need to feel worthwhile and successful
Adler
individual psychology: people are essentially good, birth order determines much of behavior
Jung
analytic psychology: people strive for self-fulfillment
Skinner
behavioral/cognitive behavioral modification: people cannot make free will decisions, behavior is learned from environment and reinforcement
Frankl
existential: people are good/rational and have the freedom to chose behavior
Williamson (trait factor)
trait factor: potential for good/bad is innate
Empiricists
John Locke, experience is the only source of knowledge
Psychodiagnostic
testing that assesses how thinking and emotions affect behavior
Invivo Desensitization
person is gradually exposed to something he fears
Ethology
the study of animals in their natural environment
Psychometrics
the entire process of tests measuring intelligence, aptitude, and personality characteristics
Psychopharmacology
the study of the effects of drugs on psychological functioning
Centration
Piaget's preoperational stage, focusing on one feature of an object and ignoring the rest
Bibliotherapy
use of books and written material
Musterbation
absolutist thinking by the client (must/should) (Ellis)
Awfulizations
Looking at a situation irrationally how awful it will be (Ellis)
Nancy Chodorow
saw psychoanalytic theory as using gender stereotyping with male imposed standards
Jean Baker Miller
"care taking" is helping others to develop emotionally, intellectually, and socially. differentiates women's development from men
Harriet Lerner
women need to balance activities that center on others and also themselves, women need to be assertive and show independence and strength in intimate relationships
Carol Tavris
society judges women by how they fit into the male world
Carol Gilligan
women communicate with each other differently then men
Gail Sheehy
wrote book Passages about transitional crisis periods in a woman's life that provide opportunities for growth
Scheme of intellectual and ethical development (William Perry)
4 categories: dualism, multiplicity, relativism, commitment
Piaget's definition of intelligence
not solely determined by genetics but also by environment, experiences, and culture
Emotional intelligence (Daniel Goleman)
self-motivation, self-awareness, empathy, social awareness, and persistence
Spirituality
effects a person's sense of self, relationships with others, perception of society, and reaction to problems
Generativity
in Erikson's middle adulthood stage a person's ability to care for another
Stagnation (Havinghurst)
a person will demonstrate self-absorption not caring for another
Universal Culture
contains all humans all having the same biology and basic biological needs
Ecological Culture
the physical location and climate of a person
Ethnic Culture
social subdivision of a cultural group
IDEA
individuals education improvement act of 2004
ADA
Americans with disabilities act of 1990 prohibits discrimination in employment
Alfred Adler's birth order
birth order creates a different psychological situation for each child, influences family dynamics
Life Cycle of a family
independence, coupling, parenting, launching adult children, retirement or senior years
Family systems theory (Murray Bowen)
differentiation of self, nuclear family, triangulation, family projection process, multigenerational transmission process, emotional cutoff, sibling position, societal emotional process
Intrinsic Motivation
an internal motivation for behavior such as a hobby, based on the enjoyment of the behavior
Extrinsic Motivation
motivation for a behavior based on expectation of a reward or punishment
Robert Carkhuff
conducted studies revealing that therapy doesn't always have a positive outcome, developed a 5 point scale measuring empathy, genuineness, concreteness, and respect in counseling
Restatement
rephrasing what the client has said with emphasis on the cognitive message
Reflection
rephrasing what the client has said with emphasis on the feeling part of the message
Paraphrasing
using different words to restate what the client has said in order to gain a better understanding
Summarizing
a concise statement of the main points or ideas in a session
Confrontation
technique where the counselor identifies discrepancies and presents them to the client
Structuring
defining the nature, limits, and goals of counseling, and the roles of the client and counselor
Witmer and Sweeney (healthy individuals)
identified 5 tasks associated with healthy individuals; spirituality, self-regulation, work, friendship, and love
Empathy
understanding another by identifying with their situation. Two stages include experiencing the same emotions as the person, and looking at the situation from their pov
Stages of building counselor client relationship
entry phase, clarification phase, structure phase, relationship phase
Stages of Positive Interaction
4 stages: stage 1 exploring feelings, stage 2 consolidation, stage 3 planning, stage 4 termination of relationship
Transference
projecting thoughts or feelings about someone/something onto a new object/person
Attending
showing interest and respect for what another has to say, examples include eye contact, posture/distance, communication
Resistance
occurs when a client avoids seeking help when needed, can be unconscious
Critical incident stress debriefing
a meeting for involved professionals following a stressful event or crisis
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
pyramid of basic human needs: (bottom up) physiological, safety, love and belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization
Congruence
the counselor's ability to maintain agreement between words and actions
Caplan's group counseling
primary or guidance, secondary or counseling, tertiary or therapy
Stages of a group
formation or trust/orientation, work/productivity or transition, closure or consolidation and termination
Gestault group theory
mature people determine their path in life and take responsibility for their decisions and actions, goal to make them more aware of their thoughts and emotions to become more mature
Person-centered theory
goal to help members better understand themselves to get closer to self-actualization
Behavioral counseling groups
goal is to modify problem behaviors and improve member's coping skills
Benet and IQ testing
developed the first intelligence test the Stanford-Binet, determined mental age as opposed to chronological age
Cattell and intelligence
fluid intelligence; inborn, abstract reasoning, crystallized intelligence; from acquired knowledge and skills
Appraisal
assessment tools used to evaluate traits and behaviors
Measure
a score assigned to a person's trait or behavior
Test
a systematic method of measuring/evaluating
Projective tests
unstructured tests for things like personality/feelings
Free choice test
short answer subjective test
Forced choice test
items such as true/false questions have a definite answer
Spiral test
easier to harder questions
Cyclical test
test has sections that progress in each section
Test battery
collection of tests given to the same group and scored the same
Horizontal test
covers material from different subjects
Vertical Test
test on one subject that is given at different levels/ages
Q-sort
tool for measuring self-esteem with statements like "most/least like me"
Halo effect
favorable evaluation of personality based on one trait
Difficulty index
the percentage of test takers that get an item correct
Dichotomous items
questions such as true/false that give the test taker opposing choices
Normative item format
unlinked items on a test
Normative test
person's test results can be compared to others, percentile can be created
Ipsative format
allows a person to compare 2 or more examples of their performance
Power test
untimed test, tests mastery level
Percentile
number that shows percent of data distribution
Speed test
timed test, difficulty is in how fast completed not content
Stanine
a way of scaling test scores, 9 divisions, SD 2
Transactional analysis theory in groups
goal to change life pattern through self-awareness and awareness of others and understanding past events
Reality theory in groups
goal is to improve life situation by gaining better control and more responsibility for their behavior
REBT
goals include changes in thought and behavior to promote greater self-acceptance and eliminate self-defeating behaviors and illogical thinking
Adlerian theory and groups
examine early history, roles of family, birth order, ad belief systems assess emotional problems caused by feelings of inferiority and lack of social connectedness
Risky shift phenomenon
a person is likely to make a riskier decision as part of a group than they would alone
T-group
training group
Self-help
support group of people sharing a common problem
Sociometry
a method for measuring social relationships in groups, developed by Jacob Moreno
Karpman's drama triangle:
in transactional analysis, a model of interactions that show roles of victim, persecutor, and rescuer
Horizontal interventions
counselor works with the group as a whole
Vertical interventions
counselor works with individuals within the group
Group work grid
developed by R. K. Coyne, model that shows four levels of intervention; individual, interpersonal, organization, and community population
Developmental approach to career development
career development occurs through stages over a period of time, includes self-concept, need, and lifespan changes (Gottfredson)
Actuarial/ trait-based approach to vocational guidance
developed by Frank Parsons, assumes people are capable of making intelligent vocational decisions by the careers best suited to their interests and aptitudes
Minnesota Occupational Rating Scales
developed by Williamson to expand on Parsons' model
Decisions approach to vocational guidance
believes that vocational education should be a part of all student's education, Gelatt identified two types of decisions terminal and investigative
Super's vocational development stages:
stages; growth (birth to 15), exploratory (15 to 24), establishment (25 to 44), maintenance (45 to 64), and decline (65+)
Super's development tasks
crystallization (14 to 18), specification (18 to 21), implementation (21 to 24), stabilization (24 to 35), and consolidation (35+)
Super's archway model
illustration of changing life roles over lifespan, includes biographical, psychological, and socioeconomic elements that influence development of career
Super's life career rainbow
illustration which each color represents a life role, used to help find balance of work and life suited for them
Super's life roles
child, student, leisurite, citizen, worker, parent, spouse, and homemaker
Holland's hexagon theory
illustration of personality types and six occupational environments/themes, determines what work environment will best suit personality type
Holland's personality types
realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional
Krumboltz's learning theory of career counseling
four factors in career decision making; genetic endowments, environmental conditions, instrumental and associative learning, and task approach skills
Gottfredson's circumscription and compromise theory of career development:
explains how vocational choice develops in children and teens, four stages include; orientation to size and power, sex roles, social valuation, internal unique self
Roe's career development theory
genetics, childhood experiences, and relationship with parents were contributing factors to career choice, 8 occupational fields and 6 levels of skill
Career development theory of Ginzberg, Ginsberg, Axelrad, and Herma
occupational choice can be divided into 3 periods; fantasy, tentative, and realistic
Cognitive information processing of career development
method of dealing with career problems using 5 steps; communication, analysis, synthesis, valuing, and execution
Tiedeman's career decision making model
believed that career decisions were made as ego related problems were solved, two phase process; anticipation/preoccupation and implementation/adjustment
Constructivism approach to career development
each person builds their own reality, understand the meaning of their life roles and values and beliefs
Contextualism approach to career development
acknowledges a close relationship between a person's inner forces and their environment, reality is drawn from person's perception of event
Social cognitive theory of career development:
based on self-efficacy; person's belief/knowledge about their abilities
Sociological model of career development
situational model, which a person chooses a career based on sociological reasons
Crites' career development theory
believes that diagnosis determines the outcome of counseling, 3 types of diagnosis; differential, dynamic, and decisional
Limitations of career development theories
most studies were done in the 50s and 60s with adult white males
Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA)
requires companies to employ 50 or more people to provide for up to 12 week unpaid leave for childbirth or immediate family member illness
Glass ceiling
an unwritten agreement by the decision makers of a company, the highest level women and minorities can reach
Displaced homemaker
a woman reentering the workforce or entering for the first time after raising a family
Dislocated worker
a person unemployed due to job elimination/relocation
Underemployment:
employee whose education/experience exceeds requirements for the position
Occupational sex segregation
occupations commonly thought of as female jobs usually have less pay and lower status
Manifested interest
an interest revealed by what a person does
Tested interest
determination of interest through testing
Outplacement counseling
career counseling for employees whose jobs are ending
Test reliability
measurement of the consistency in which a test yields similar results in repeated uses
Test-retest reliability/stability
giving the same test to the same group twice no more than 2 weeks between
Equivalence
the correlation of the results of using different tests covering the same content with the same group of test takers
Internal consistency
measures the consistency of results from items in a test
Validity:
the degree to which a test measures what it is designed to measure
Content validity
the reflection of the subject matter in the content of the test
Predictive validity
the capability of a test to predict future behavior
Concurrent validity
the immediate comparison of test results with the results from other sources that measure the same factors
Construct validity
the extent to which a test measures an abstract psychological trait such as anxiety
Achievement tests
measure learning, such as the Stanford-Binet or Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III)
Aptitude tests
measure a person's ability to master skills or acquire knowledge
Personality tests
determines personality traits and may be projective, inventories, or specialized; ex Rorschach or Myers-Briggs
Interest inventories
measures likes and dislikes; ex Strong Interest Inventory, Career Assessment Inventory
WAIS-III:
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale measures both verbal and performance IQ, can be used as young as age 3
Galton and intelligence
intelligence is primarily genetic and has a normal distribution similar to height and weight
Gilford and intelligence
used factor analysis to find 120 factors related to intelligence, also defined convergent and divergent thinking
Convergent thinking (Gilford)
different thoughts and ideas combined into a single concept
Divergent thinking (Gilford)
the ability to create a novel idea
T-score
a score within a normal distribution with a mean of 50 and SD of 10
Standardized score
same as z score
Skew
the amount a score deviates from the norm
Standard deviation
measure of statistical dispersion
Variance
the square of the SD
Correlation coefficient:
a measurement of the linear relationship between two variables
Intrusive measurement
person is aware that they are being observed, questionnaire/interviews
Obtrusive measurement
subject is unaware of observation or investigation
Regression to the mean
earning a very low/very high score on a pretest means they will probably score close to the mean on the posttest
Rating scale
chart used to indicate the degree to which an attribute/characteristic exists
Descriptive/statistical research
can be used to document factors such as frequencies/averages, showing the who, what, when, where, and how of the data
Comparative research
compares two or more groups without changing any of the experiences of the group
Correlation coefficient
the degree of relationship between variables
Deductive research
sets out to prove/disprove a theory by collecting data and testing hypothesis
Inductive research:
works from known info to develop a theory by establishing relationships/patterns in the data
Qualitative research
in-depth investigation of the subject/group
Interactive qualitative research
includes case studies and ethnography
Non-interactive qualitative research
includes a study and analysis of the literature about a particular subject
Experimental quantitative research
the cause and effect relationship between variables, includes a control, and independent & dependent variable
Quasi-experimental research
much like experimental but may not use a control
External validity
the accuracy which the results of a study can be generalized to a larger population
Hawthorne effect
caused by the subjects knowing they are being involved in a study
Rosenthal effect/experimenter bias
when the subjects change their behavior due to the researcher
Internal validity:
the extent to which the results of an experiment can be attributed to the variable under study because extraneous variables have been controlled
Random sampling
choosing the subjects for a study based on chance, reduces likelihood of bias
Stratified sampling
divides the population into subgroups according to a certain criteria
Proportional stratified sampling
the selection of the number of subjects in each subgroup that corresponds to the percentage of the population
Cluster sampling
divides the population into subdivisions
Purposeful sampling
the selection of subjects for an in-depth study
Nominal measurements
categorical variables used to describe the demographics of the subjects
Ordinal measurements
used to describe variables that can be arranged in some type of ranking order
Interval measurements:
used to describe variables with similar/equal distances between ranks
Ratio measurements
variables that have equal intervals and a zero reference point
Independent variable
the factor in an experiment that is changed by the researcher
Dependent variable
what is being measured by the study and is changed in response to changes in the independent variable
Type I/alpha error
the null hypothesis is rejected as false when it is really true
Type II/beta error
the null hypothesis is not rejected when it is false
T-test
compares the mean of two independent data sets to determine if there is significant statistical difference between them
Null hypothesis
assumes no difference or no association between variables
Directional hypothesis
predicts how the independent variable will affect the dependent variable
Significance level:
indicated the probability of making a type I error in a hypothesis test
Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)
used in studies where the dependent variables are controlled
One-way analysis of variance
a test for differences when the study involves 3 or more independent groups/levels
Factorial Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
used in the study of 2 or more variables
Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)
used in studies involving several dependent variables and at least 2 independent variables
Chi-squared
used to determine if there are significant differences in the distribution of two data sets
Post hoc tests
multiple comparison tests, can be done after the data sets are determined to have similar F values
Nonparametric tests:
validation tests used when a study yields values that are not distributed normally or the sample variance is close to the population
Nonparametric one-way analysis of variance
used there are multiple values for a single variable/factor
Accountability
primarily concerned with effectiveness of the treatment with justification of the cost
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