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History Mid-term 2015 study guide

Terms in this set (84)

history vs. prehistory
prehistory is the time before written records and history is the time when people started to write down everything.
importance of agriculture
the hunters and gathers started farming because they needed to be able to settle down, stay in one place; they were able to make up culture, build a house, start a big family, and even build some of the first cities
characteristics of civilization
cities, well-organized central governments, complex religion, job specialization, social classes, art and architecture, public works, writing
river valley civilizations
nile, euphrates/tigris, yellow, indus
monotheism vs. polytheism
... is the belief in one God and ... is the belief in many different gods.
why government arose in Mesopotamia
some of the big scale projects needed organization so government began to arise in order to guarantee things got done.
location of the Italian Peninsula
middle of the mediterranean
why Roman capital was moved to Constantinople
the east was richer and it was Christian in the East
the Battle of Tours
732 AD; Muslims tried to invade Europe to spread their religion; they were defeated so Christianity remained the leading faith in Europe
feudalism
a social and political structure that ranks all of the people in Medieval Europe
manoralism - self-sufficiency
the manor/economic side of feudalism; self-sufficient system where the lord was granted land by the king and the serfs farmed on this land for the lords
knights - chivalry
code of conduct- the behavior of rights knights have to follow
purpose of the Crusades
to end Muslim rule over the Holy Land
why people joined the Crusades
Christians wanted to take back the Holy Land from the Muslims who were ruling them at the time
outcome of the First Crusade
Christians won over Jerusalem and made it a Christian city
outcome of the Fourth Crusade
The French Christian crusaders and the Venetians decided to forget about the Muslims and go after the Byzantine Empire because the Pope wanted the correct brother to be emperor; this was Christian on Christian violence so in a sense it was a win for the Muslims
impact of the Crusades
Christians gained new technology and products, there were many deaths: feudalism weakened because of all of the knights that died so the Church's power increased and so did trade
heresy
going against church teachings; belief or opinion contrary to orthodox religious (especially Christian) doctrine
excommunication
when you're kicked out of the Church (no church = no salvation)
Renaissance
This is a rebirth of arts and literature that started in Italy and spread around Europe
Michelangelo Buonarroti
He was a famous artist that was a painter, sculptor and even architect. His important pieces of artwork was The Statue of David, ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and sculpture if Pieta (of Mary holding Jesus after his death)
Leonardo da Vinci
Architect, inventor, engineer, painter, mathematician, musician, sculptor, and scientist who painted the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper; had 20,00 pages of notes with sketches of the human anatomy, ideas for tanks and flying machines; known as the renaissance man!!!
Black Death
(Bubonic Plague) disease passed by fleas and rats; still around today; killed a lot of people in ancient Europe; the slaves die and people become free from the manor
Johannes Gutenberg
A German who cast the letters of the alphabet onto metal plates and locked them into a "wooden press" also known as a type writer- published a 1,282 page Bible - this inspired many other inventors; allowed stories and books to be published
Protestant Reformation-
began in Germany; a movement in Christianity when they protested against the church; the Catholic Church tried to prevent the spread of Protestantism by not allowing Jesuits to use swords to physically attack Protestants
certificates of indulgences
the things that Christians believed would get hem into heaven. sold by Pope Leo X to afford the basilica. Meant to lessen your time in purgatory
Martin Luther
A lawyer turned Monk who believes the only head of the Church was Jesus (not the pope), believed that God's grace could not be won by good deeds, final authority of faith is the bible; Christians should interpret the Bible by themselves; believes in only communion and baptism; had complaints about the church and came up with the 95 theses; excommunicated from the Catholic Church
95 Theses
Martin Luther's list of complaints and criticisms of the catholic church (10/31/1517) they were written in latin, designed for higher power people to read them
justification by faith
the idea that you will be made right or fair if you believe in God and this will bring you to heaven according to Martin Luther
Edict of Nantes
Henry IV gave Huguenots limited freedom of worship by issuing this; people were no longer forced to follow the monarch's religion; the idea of one king, one law, one religion did not exist anymore; this required that Huguenots support the Catholic Church financially; Catholicism the official religion of France; French Catholics accepted the edict because it ended the religious wars
predestination
God knows if you will be saved or not before you are even born. Also your actions on Earth don't change your destination.
Council of Trent
Pope Paul III created this in 1545 and it met on and off until 1563. They examined the criticisms made by Protestants about Catholic practices. called to redefine doctrines; or fix the world and make sure rules are enforced; their will be wars between the Protestants and Catholics over who is right and who is wrong.
traditional authorities before Sci. Rev
the church and ancient scholars
connection of Renaissance to Age of Exploration
The Renaissance is connected to the Age of Exploration because more people wanted to trade and it would be less expensive and no tribes, such as Muslims, would try to stop them if the traveled by sea. Also, with advances in technology such as the astrolabe and compass it was easier to travel by sea.
joint stock companies
businesses formed by groups of people who jointly make an investment and share in the profit and losses. (a way to fund large businesses; investors buy shares of stock in a company. when the company receives profit, the investors would receive a portion of that profit based on the number of shares owned. If a company failed, investors would lose only the money that they invested in the company)
mercantilism
economic theory based on the belief that the world contains only a fixed amount of wealth, and that to increase its own share, one country has to take wealth away from another country; this increased Europe in global exploration; COLONIES FIT INTO THIS BY PROVIDING MARKETS AND RAW MATERIALS
Favorable balance of Trade
increase the value of exports; more exports and fewer imports is ideal; want more exports than imports so the gold is flowing into your economy and you are making more profit.
caravel
a light, fast sailing ship, very maneuverable and had new steering and new sails. Also could be armed with weapons for defense
astrolabe
similar to a compass; allows you to find your location based on the position of the stars in relation to the horizon
goal of Portuguese explorers
portuguese explorers was to find a water route around africa and india.
goal of Spanish explorers-
Spanish colonial economy was based largely on gaining money and gold and land; they were in it for the long haul
goal of early English, Dutch and French explorers
to find the northwest passage
Magellan - circumnavigation-
Portuguese explorer who worked with Spain; decided to sail west around the world in 1519. he was killed in the Philippines but 18 survivors of his crew returned and were the first to sailed completely around the world, or circumnavigate.
Treaty of Tordesillas-
(1494)- drew an imaginary line through the Atlantic. west, including most of the undiscovered Americas, was Spain's. everything east was Portuguese's.
Colombian Exchange-
exchange between Europe and Americas; shared plants, animals, diseases, (and technology). America was not immune to European diseases and when they were introduced to the smallpox, etc. many of them died
importation of African slaves to the Americas
African slaves were imported to the Americas because they needed people to do the labor; the natives were not hardy and did not have strong enough built; Middle Passage
Scientific Revolution
a time of new scientific ideas that changed the way Europeans looked at the world; a transformation in European thought in the 1500s and 1600s that called for scientific observation, experimentation, and the questioning of traditional opinions
geocentric vs. heliocentric theory-
....= scientific theory that has the earth as the center of the universe with the sun and stars revolving around it (supported by the church)
....= scientific theory that has the sun as the center of the universe with the earth rotating around the sun
Copernicus
Polish; 1st scientist to complete a model of the solar system
-he believed the universe was heliocentric, or sun-centered
-came to these conclusions using mathematical formulas
- wrote On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
- the start of modern science and astronomy
-many rejected his theory bc it went against the church
Galileo-
Italian astronomer, mathematician, and physicist; he discovered the law of motion of falling objects; assembled the first telescope; discovered the Milky Way was made up of stars
-observed Saturn, craters on the moon, sunspots, four moons orbiting around Jupiter (exactly the way Copernicus said the Earth rotated around the sun)
-He was forced by the Church to recant; proved the Copernican theory
-His theories had major conflict with the Church because the Church only believed in Aristotle's theory
Isaac Newton
- English mathematician and natural philosopher;s; he used math to prove the existence of gravity; built upon the work of Copernicus and Galileo; invented calculus
-most influential scientist of the Scientific Revolution; came up with motion and gravitation
-published The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, which explained the law of gravity; discovered laws of light and color; formulated the laws of motion
Age of Enlightenment/Age of Reason
Scientific Revolution led to this; philosophers came to the conclusion that reason could be used to solve all human problems; a time of optimism and possibility
absolute monarchs
a ruler who has total power and seeks to control all aspects of society; whose power is not limited by having to consult with the nobles, common people, or their representatives
theory of divine right-
belief that monarchs received their power from God and therefore must not be challenged; belief that God gave the ruler his "right" to rule and this ruler acts as God's representative
natural law
laws that protected peoples natural rights
John Locke
wrote Two Treatises of Government; believed men were naturally good
-people could force change if government failed their people
-big influence on the Declaration of Independence
-Men could live free from the arbitrary laws of other men and do what they want with their property
-believed government should protect life, liberty, and property (natural rights)
-believed government was based on a social contract and that it was necessary to establish order
-Adds in the idea of natural rights to the idea of a social contract (Constitution)
-contributed to the Bill of Rights
Thomas Hobbes
wrote the Leviathan; believed Absolute monarchy was the best form of government (rejects divine right); believed man was born cruel, greedy, selfish
-To avoid chaos, people give up freedoms to a government that will ensure order - creation of the social contract
-The government must be strong and able to suppress rebellion
Jean-Jacques Rousseau-
wrote the social contract (1762)
-believed legitimate gov came from the consent of the people; idea of popular sovereignty
-believed people born good, but corrupted by the environment, education, and government
-Can keep the good if the people choose the government (popular sovereignty)
-Talked about how individuals give up some of their rights for the common good
Natural Rights
rights all humans had since birth - right to life, liberty and property. (the pursuit of happiness)
Adam Smith/supply & demand-
Scottish economist; wrote the Wealth of Nations (1776)
-looked to reform economics; rejected mercantilism
-referred to the "invisible hand" (benefits to society of people behaving in their own interests.)
-Argued for free market without government
-believed the natural forces of supply and demand should operate and regulate business
laissez-faire-
government should not interfere w/ operations of business (Adam Smith)
salon
a place for women and men to congregate for intellectual discourse
Enlightenment Despots
monarchs that developed a system of government in which they ruled according to the Enlightenment ideas and they became---- monarchs who tried to make the lives of commoners better
Montesquieu
concluded that the British had an almost perfect government; discovered the idea of checks and balances.............. influenced the constitution with their writings
-wrote the the Spirit of Laws (1748) = it describes the perfect government
-idea of separation of power is found in the articles of the constitution
-believed government must separate its powers into three branches
causes of the English war
conflict between a king (Charles I) who believed in an absolute monarchy and a Parliament that saw itself as independent of the king
Oliver Cromwell
member of Parliament, leader of the roundhead forces; he banned many things; he became known as the Lord Protector; House of Commons abolished the House of Lords and outlawed the monarchy; he clamped down on English social life (footloose); started a war with the Dutch and the Spanish
James II of England
Charles II son; he was Catholic and his second marriage was to a Catholic princess; he was an absolute monarch; king of England and Ireland; king of Scotland as James VII
Glorious Revolution
1688= Nobles invite James II's daughter and husband to rule; William and Mary both Protestant; peaceful transfer of power between James II; Parliament crowns the new king and queen; had to sign the English Bill of rights
William and Mary
the girl= James II's daughter; the boy= the girl's husband; they took part in the Glorious Revolution; new king and queen of England
U.S. Constitution
a social contract; influenced by Montesquieu's writings
Bill of Rights (U.S.)-
added 10 amendments to the Constitution; John Locke?
Estates
the king is above everyone (Louis XVI)

1st estate: Clergy ( 1%)
largely exempt from taxes; collected rents and fees= very wealthy
dîme (tithe)
Kept records of birth, deaths, and marriages
2nd estate: Nobility (2%)
paid few taxes and controlled much wealth
Held key positions in government & military
only nobles could hunt
wore swords & displayed coat of arms
Lived on country estates
Primogeniture- first born of parents
3rd estate: everyone else (97%)
paid most of the taxes
Bourgeoisie—city-dwelling merchants, factory owners, and professionals
Sans culottes—artisans and workers
Peasants—poor with little hope, paid rents and fees
Causes of the French Revolution
Short term:
bankruptcy
caused by deficit spending
financial ministers proposed tax reform; all rejected
assembly of notables voted down taxation for the nobility in 1787

great fear
worst famine in memory
hungry, impoverished peasants feared that nobles at Estates-General were seeking greater privileges
attacks on nobles occurred throughout the country in 1789
estates-general
Louis XVI had no choice but to call for a meeting of the Estates-General to find a solution to bankruptcy
had not met since 1614 (175 years ago)
Long term:
Break down of the Old Order (Ancien Regime)
growth of the French population
rising food and rent- without increases in wages
resented the rich for collecting taxes
hated the riches large houses and abundant food
blame the king for letting prices rule
many protest-riots
makes first two estates protect their freedom
Bourgeoisie= unhappy
wanted political power to = economic strength
resented paying taxes
wanted to conduct bus without government
wanted sons to take positions in government, army and the Church

Divine Right of Kings
absolutism
system of mercantilism which restricted trade
influence of Enlightenment philosophers
King Louis XVI
king at the time of the French Revolution; lived in Versailles; not capable of picking a side and making a decision; heavily influenced by his wife; executed in 1792 by National Convention
Estates General
nobles pressed Louis to call this bc of the bankruptcy problem; it was an assembly made up of three estates, to approve new taxes on the Third Estate; had been organized into three houses which met separately; representation had been roughly based on each estate's proportion within the general population; one vote per estate - Voting system nullified numerical advantage of Third Estate (usually the First and Second Estate voted together); had not met in 175 years
the Reign of Terror-
September 1793 to July 1794; the Mountain or Jacobians began a series of accusations, trials, and executions that created a wave of fear throughout the country of France; get rid of all those against the Revolution and leave only "good citizens"; 85% of the 40,000 killed were commoners with the guillotine
The Declaration of Rights of Man
adopted by the National Assembly; lays out the basic principles of the French Revolution: liberty, equality, fraternity (brotherhood); writers took their inspiration from English Bill of Rights, American Declaration of Independence, and the writings of the Enlightenment philosophers; National Assembly gets rid of the last little bit of feudalism; repeal the feudal dues, hunting rights and tax exemptions; this also got rid of the privileges of the First and Second estate; stated that all MEN are born equal and remain equal before the law and guaranteed freedom of speech, the press, and religion; these rights did not extend to women
coup d'etat/the Directory-
New executive council with 5 directors, ruled with a two-house legislature; this was controlled by the wealthy middle class; France is now ruled by this; used the army to put down uprisings by the radicals and the royalists; in 1795 they drafted another constitution; universal male suffrage (all men can vote) was removed and only male property holders could vote; now the government was controlled by the wealthy (again); prices soared and everyone suffered were on the verge of bankruptcy; The directors were weak, corrupt, and ineffective; They became as unpopular as the Old Regime; ended in 1799 when Napoleon seized power
Continental System
Napoleon plans to disrupt England's trade; blockade prohibited French allies to trade with Great Britain; prohibited French or allied ships from trading with Britain. The British responded by requiring all ships from neutral countries to stop in British ports for permission to trade with the French
Napoleon's invasion of Russia - scorched earth
Napoleon stationed troops near the western border of Russia
the Russian ruler, Czar Alexander I, became very nervous about the effects of the Continental system on his country's need to import goods, so he began to gather his own troops
In June, Napoleon and an army of 600,00+ men marched across Russian borders
many soldiers were new recruits from conquered territories (not loyal to Napoleon) and much of the army's supplies were lost of spoiled along the rough roads and the July heat made men and horses miserable
the Russian troops later withdrew as he advanced
In August, the French were moving towards Moscow, when they clashed with Russia
French won, but their casualties were very high
traveled to moscow, then went back
1813 they started the long way home, The Battle of Leipzig (Russia v French)
the Russians forced the French to return the way they had come
the harsh Russian weather hit the French hard and many were killed bc of the freezing temperatures and starvation
only 94,000, of the 200,00 men that started, made the journey back to France
Scorched-earth policy
tactic used by the Russian army which involved the burning of crops and all useful items
sale of Louisiana Territory-
Napoleon wanted to extend his power to the Americas, which the French controlled a number of territories, including Louisiana, Florida, and the sugar-producing colony of Haiti; he sent an expedition to take back the colony and to restore its profitable sugar industry, but the French expedition failed horribly; so Napoleon had to abandon his dream of an empire in the Americas and sold the Louisiana territory to the Americas bc his expedition failed to take back Saint Dominique (Haiti), and focused on his territories in Europe
Congress of Vienna-
European leaders met in Vienna, Austria to re-establish order; their objective was to create a plan to restore order and stability to Europe after turmoil of the Napoleonic Wars and to undo all of the stuff that came out of this era (The French Revolution and Napoleon); their goal was to make sure France would never again rise to such power and such an imbalance of power; they redrew the European map and changed many national borders in order to strengthen the nation's near France; strengthening the state's around France was suppose to lessen the chance of France invading its neighbors again; they restored France to the 1792 boundaries; they also restored some of the monarchies that Napoleon had eliminated; such as: Spain, Sicily, Portugal, and Sardinia
Klemens von Metternich-
chief minister of Austria; architect; coachman of Europe and controlled the Congress of Vienna in restoring Europe; he wanted to restore a balance of power, make Europe peaceful again, restore old monarchies, and compensate the Allies for their loses
Quadruple Alliance
an alliance made up between four different peoples and countries; Austria brings in Prussia; Russia and Britain then joined; these were the four main powers opposing France and Napoleon; France must remain a great power or the scale will tip and the balance of power will be uneven!
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