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Praxis II English to Speakers of Other Languages (5361)

Terms in this set (120)

Stages of first-language acquisition
Five recognizable states
1. Babbling Stage (6-8 months old):
Begins making repetitive patterns of sound with mouth
2. One word Stage (nine-eighteen months):
One-morpheme, one-unit, or holophrastic stage
3. Two-word Stage (eighteen to twenty four months):
begins making miniature sentences with simple semantic relations
4. Telegraphic stage (Twenty-four to thirty months): Child begins to express sentence structures with lexical rather than functional or grammatical morphemes
5. Multiword stage (After thirty moths): Characteristic grammatical or functional structures of the primary language emerge and are incorporated
Behaviorist Model
BF Skinner
Individuals learn language as a direct response to stimuli
-Over time, an individual develops a mental response to those stimuli
Nativist Model
Noam Chomsky
-Attempt to explain how people are able to understand and produce a seemingly infinite number of linguistic expressions
-Principles of language are innate and the specific parameters of each language are acquired in the first few years of life
-Human mind has a language acquisition device
Sociocultural Theory
Vygotsky
States that learning begins as a result of interpersonal communication and is then internalizes as intrapersonal
-Zone of proximal developmentL difference between what a person knows and what he could know if given a bit of assistance from someone else
Ecological Model
Bronfenbrenner
Development in four nested levels
1.Microsystem: Child's immediate environment
2. Mesosystem: Interactions between components of the microsystem
3. Exosystem: more general elements of the child's environment
4. Macrosystem: Overarching environmental influences, like cultural beliefs
Steven Pinker
Agreed with Chomsky that human beings are born with an innate capacity for learning and understanding language
-but added that this capacity is the result of millions of years of evolution
-communication increased their odds of survival
Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS)
Jim Cummins
-Use of language in informal and social settings
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)
Jim Cummins
Use of language in the classroom
Social Interactionist Interpretation
Emphasizes the relationship of the newborn with his caregivers
Cognitive Model of Language
Piaget
-Asserts that individuals develop linguistic skills in order to control their environment
-Four basic stages of cognitive development
1.Sensorimotor intelligence
2.Pre operational thought
3. Concrete Operations
4. Formal Operations
Acquisition-Learning Model
Posits two ways in which an individual develops proficiency in a second language

1. Acquisition: subconscious process by which vocabulary and the basic rules of grammar are slowly and steadily absorbed
2. Learning: conscious study and knowledge of vocabulary and the rules of grammar
Input Hypothesis
Stephen Krashen
-Individuals need to be given information slightly above their ability level in a given language
Monitor Hypothesis
When an individual learns rules of grammar, he is able to monitor consciously the discourse he hears in the future
Sociocognitive Approach
True competence is demonstrated in the ability to express oneself in different social contexts
Natural Order Hypothesis
Asserts that the acquisition of a second language will follow predictable patterns
Affective Filter Hypothesis
Number of emotional factors contribute to the acquisition of a second language
-Self-confidence, anxiety, and motivation
Relationship between primary language academic success and English
Development of high proficiency in cognitive academic language in the primary language is often the basis for a similar proficiency in English
Verbal/linguistic and Logical/mathematical Students
Verbal/linguistic: enjoy reading, learning about language, speaking, writing, and manipulating words in puzzles

Logical/mathematical: enjoy solving problems with numbers, performing experiments and calculations, and coming up with hypothetical questions
Language Variation
Every language undergoes constant variation, as denotations, connotations, phonology, and pragmatics vary
Dialect
Version of a language that is used by a particular group of people
Register of a language
Form of that language that is appropriate to a given situation
Slang
General term used to describe any nonstandard form of a language
Development of Phonics Knowledge
Logographic phase
Analytic phase
Orthographic phase
Logographic Phrase
"word-picture" phase, the child will be able to identify familiar words by sight
Analytic Phrase
Children begin to take a closer look at the components of words
-begin to notice that words that sound alike often have a similar appearance as well
Orthographic phase
Students have acquired almost all of the tools required to sound out familiar and unfamiliar words
-know all of the sounds of the letters and read most common words automatically
Spelling Development
Prephonetic: children may not yet have acquired the alphabetic principle

Phonetic: Likely to use one letter to represent a complex sound that requires two or more letters
-should be possible to make out what the student intends to communicate with his writing

Transitional: Once the student has developed a small sight vocabulary and a solid understanding of the correspondence between english letters and sounds

Conventional: characterized by near-perfect spelling and a massive sight vocabulary
Phonology
The way a language sounds
Phoneme
Smallest distinguishable unit of sound that can hold meaning in a given language
Morphology
System by which words are constructed out of letters
morpheme
smallest meaningful unit (word)
Syntax
Basic structure of the sentences
-different from grammar by the fact that grammar offers recommendations for proper syntax, whereas syntax is the entire collection of proper and improper formulations
Phonetics
Study of sounds made during human speech
Semantics
Meanings of its words
-explore the denotations and connotations of words
Denotation
explicit meaning, dictionary meaning
Connotation
implied meaning an idea or feeling that a word invokes
Pragmatics
System by which it is used in social interactions
-Ways in which people use language with one another are determined by the type of expression required as well as by the relationship of the speaker with his audience
Phonemic awareness
The understanding that words are made up of individual speech sounds
Phonemic awareness vs. Phonics
Phonics- direct correspondence between letters and sounds
Phonemic awareness comes before phonics instruction
Consonants
formed by a motion that somehow blocks the flow of air
Vowels
Formed by the vibration of air moving through the voice box and mouth
-a, e, i, o, and u
-y in words like fly and rhythm
-w in words like now and brown
Consonant Blend
Combination of two or more consonants into a single sound
Diphthong
single but shifting sound made by the combination of two or more vowels
-boil, first oy sounds then as a short u sound
Digraph
Group of two or more letters that create a sound different from the individual sounds of the letters
Onset
Sound that initiates a syllable
Rime
Any consonants after the vowel
Beginning, end, and medial phonemes
Another way in which phonemes are distinguished is by their placement in a word
Phonemic Awareness Skills
1. Sound matching
2. Sound isolation
3. Sound blending
4.Sound substitution
5. Sound sound deletion
6. Sound segmentation
Transfer of literacy competence
Positive transfers of knowledge between phonemic awareness, reading phonics, word recognition strategies, and cognates
Microprocesses
At this level, students are working to group the words and ideas within sentences into units of meaning
Integrative Processes
Student's ability to identify relationships between clauses and sentences at the multiple-sentence and paragraph level of complexity
Macroprocesses
Relating small chunks of text to the whole text and organizing sections of text
Elaborative Processes
Extending literal comprehension to an understanding of the author's intent and themes
Metacognitive Processes
Ability to self-critique comprehension and analysis
William Labov and Joshua Fishman
Sociolinguists that are responsible for popularizing and providing academic backing for marginalized dialects and languages
William Labov: Afterican-American Vernacular English as a legitimate dialect
Joshua Fishman: concentrated on the evolution of languages
Dell Hymes
sociolinguist primarily concerned with the interactions between language, society, and cultural context (SPEAKING mnemonic of discourse)
Setting and Scene
Participants
Ends (goals or intentions)
Act sequence (structure of linguistic interaction)
Key (gestures or inflections that influence tone and mood)
Instrumentalities (methods or conventions of speech)
Norms
Genre
Basil Bernstein
Famous for distinguishing between the restricted code (used by people who have similar cultural background or know each other well) and the elaborated code (used by people who are unfamiliar with one another or with one another's culture
Sheltered English Approach
Characterized by comprehensible input, meaning that all the information disseminated in the class should be understandable to students.
-Teachers use student background knowledge and experience to determine activities
-modeling and demonstrations
-language gives us the labels and categories for certain familiar concepts
Sheltered Instruction vs. ESL
In sheltered instruction, the focus of instruction is mastery of the content area, whereas in ESL, the focus is on development of English skills.
Submersion Programs
Student literally drowning in new information.. sink or swim motto
Transitional ESL Education
Students will receive content-area instruction in both their primary and secondary language
Primary language instruction
In some ESL programs, a great deal of content-area material is covered in the native language
English Language Development
Focus on incorporating a wide variety of methods and approaches to address various learning styles
SDAIE
Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English
-student must have at least intermediate fluency in English
Characteristics of an ESL program
Content is taught in the students' primary language and separate instruction is provided in English language skills
Dual Immersion programs
Groups of students with different first languages are placed together and encouraged to learn each other's native tongue
Four Basic Orientations to teaching ESL
1. Structural/linguistic
-Based on comparisons between the structures of different languages

2. Cognitive
-entails objectives that enable the student to make generalizations about the rules of English

3. Affective/Motivational
-Emphasizes predispositions of the student that can enhance or inhibit learning

4. Functional/communicative
-Involves selecting language structures on the basis of their utility in achieving a communicative purpose
Audiolingual Teaching Method
Relies on repetition of structural patterns
-Grammar is typically taught inductively, meaning that students are informed of the rules of grammar after they have intuitively learned proper expression
Total Physical Response Approach
Incorporates psychomotor systems to inculcate vocabulary and syntactic forms
Communicative Strategy
Assumes the comprehension of linguistic principles always comes before production of speech or writing
-Goal of this approach is for students to create meaningful communication
Grammar-translation Approach
Lessons are taught almost exclusively in the primary language of the students
-There is very little active use of English
Direct Approach
-Came after the Grammar-translation Approach
-Attempted to incorporate the secondary language in instruction a bit more
Reading Approach
-For students that will not be living in an English-speaking community and for whom reading is the most important skill to master
-Improving reading ability and establishing current events and historical knowledge of English-speaking countries
Community Language Learning Approach
The most important thing is to lower the affective filter of the student and gradually introduce him to a linguistic community in English
Functional-notional approach
The specific units of instruction are situations in which the student will be forced to express himself in English
Categories of Discourse
5 major functional categories of discourse:
-personal, interpersonal, directive, referential, and imaginative
Reading Recovery Movement
Marie M Clay
-Effective method of accelerating the progress of struggling readers
-
Sharon Taberski
Has written a number of popular books about the personal relationships between teachers and new readers
Priscilla Vail
Expert on Dyslexia, and in particular on the assessment of dyslexic children
Marilyn Jager Adams
Established basic criteria for early reading success and helped to create voice recognition software for developing readers
Sequence for phonics skill instruction
-Begin by naming the letters, both uppercase and lowercase
-sounds of the letters
-Difference between consonants and vowels
1/4 of letter sound lesson:. Three letter words
Simplest words for young students to understand
Consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC)
2/4 of letter sound lesson:. Basic Digraphs
Two consonants that produce a sound unlike either of the component letters (sh, ch, th)
3/4 of letter sound lesson: Consonant blends
bl, sl, st: These require students to remember the individual sounds of the consonants, but also to combine them into a slightly new form
4/4 of letter sound lesson: Long vowel sounds and multisyllabic words
As much as possible, the teacher should focus on one-syllable words when addressing long vowel sounds..
Synthesis Phonics Instruction
Instruction that build words out of sounds
Analysis Phonics Instruction
Instruction that breaks words down into their component sounds
Blend Cards
-Synthetic instruction
Common rimes on the board, and students are asked to match their cards of (b, c, s, or f) to match to complete a word
Underlining
Good strategy when working on analysis phonics instruction
Word Sort
Method of analytic phonics instruction
Decoding
Converting written words into sounds
Encoding
Putting sounds together to make a written word
Reliability
Consistency between scores from different administrations of the assessment
Validity
Degree to which a test measures what it was intended to measure
Phonics Approach
Emphasizes the importance of the relationship between sound and comprehension
Skills/Balanced Approach
Focuses on giving students a set of tools with which to make sense of simple texts
Whole language approach
Concentrate on the specific functions of language
-Strong emphasis on communication skills
Graphophonemic Cueing Systems
Students are encouraged to declare the similarities and differences between written and spoken forms of a sound
Semantic/Syntactic Cueing
Involves asking the student to predict the meaning of a word based on syntax and grammar clues
Yopp-Singer Test of Phonemic Segmentation
Oral test
-Teacher reads 22 words aloud and the student states the component sounds in order
Emergent Literacy Model
Suggests that children have a natural tendency towards language learning
-Children are constantly exposed to the concepts of print, reading, and oral language, and therefore do not need a great deal of explicit instruction on these subjects
Language acquisition Model
Emphasizes the role of educators in solidifying students' natural understanding of language
Reading Readiness Model
Places a great deal of emphasis on the direct instruction of reading skills
Basic Print Concepts
1. Meaning of print
2. Direction of text
3. letter, word, and sentence representation
4. Book orientation
SQ3R
Survey, question, read, recite, and review
QAR
Question-answer relationships
-right there, think and search, author and you, and on my own
CLOZE tests
Used to determine whether students will be able to understand a given text
-deleting every 5th word
Reading Fluency
Accuracy: correct decoding and recognition of words

Rate: speed at which words are recognized correctly

Prosody: Dramatic and artful reading style that improves the attention and understanding of the listener.
Informal Reading Inventory (IRI)
Word recognition list, graded reading passage, reading interest survey, print concepts test, phonemic awareness test, phonics text, structural analysis test, CLOZE test for content-area reading, vocabulary test, and spelling test
Matthew Effect
When it comes to vocabulary learning, there is a tendency for more advanced students to make more progress than struggling students, thus widening the performance gap even further
Homophones
Students must be able to accurately recognize and incorporate common homophones
-Words that sound the same but have different spellings
Clairifying Table
Tool to help students separate a topic into smaller, more manageable parts
Linguistic Knowledge
defined as understanding the system: how the language words, what the words mean, and how to use the words properly
Performance Contracts
Written agreement between an individual student or a group of students and teacher about a specific activity
Lau v. Nichols
Great influence on the expansion of bilingual education in US
-A group of Chinese-American students in San Francisco claimed that they were receiving an inferior education because of their limited proficiency in English
Meyer v. Nebraska
Supreme Court ruled that states cannot restrict foreign-language instruction
Bilingual Education Act of 1968
Congress enacted the Bilingual Education Act to provide local school districts with federal money for the establishment of English language programs for students whose primary language is Spanish
Castaneda v. Pickard (1981)
According to this ruling, bilingual education programs must be based on "sound educational theory", must be "implemented effectively with resources for personnel, instructional materials, and space", and must prove to be effective at overcoming linguistic barriers
Subtractive Bilingualism
Any form of bilingual education that places English above the students' first language
Additive Bilingualism
Consciously avoids marginalizing the native language and culture of each student
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