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MCAT Behavioral Sciences Chapter 4- Cognition, Consciousness, and Language

Terms in this set (102)

Cognition
how our brains process and react to the incredible information overload presented to us by the world
Information processing model
states that the brain encodes, stores, and retrieves information much like a computer
Cognitive development
the development of one's ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan
Schema
a concept, a behavior, or a sequence of events
Adaptation
-how new information is processed
-composed of two complementary processes: assimilation and accommodation
Assimilation
the process of classifying new information into existing schemata
Accommodation
the process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new information
Piaget's stages of cognitive development
-Sensorimotor
-Peroperational
-Concrete operational
-Formal operational
Sensorimotor stage
-(0-2)
-child learns to manipulate environment
-circular reactions begin: primary circular (repetition of body movement that originally occurred by chance) and secondary circular reactions (manipulation focused outside the body)
-milestone that ends stage is development of object permanence
Object permanence
the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view (peek-a-boo)
Representational thought
child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events
Preoperational stage
-(2-7)
-characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration
Symbolic thinking
the ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination
Egocentrism
the inability to imagine what another person may think or feel
Centration
the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, or inability to understand the concept of conservation
Concrete operational stage
-(7-11)
-children can understand conservation and consider the perspectives of others
-able to engage in logical thought as long as they are working with concrete objects or info that is directly available
Formal operational stage
-(11-)
-marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas
Lev Vygotsky
-prominent educational psychologist
-proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the child's internalization of her culture, including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language
Fluid intelligence
-consists of problem-solving skills
-peaks in early adulthood
Crystallized intelligence
-the use of learned skills and knowledge
-peaks in middle adulthood
Dementia
-often begins with impaired memory, but later progresses to impaired judgement and confusion
-most commonly caused by Alzheimer's
Delirium
-rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical (nonpsychological) causes
-can be caused by variety of issues, including electrolyte/pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, drug reaction, etc.
Mental set
the tendency to approach problems in the same way
Functional fixedness
the inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner
Types of problem-solving
-Trial-and-error
-Algorithms
-Deductive reasoning
-Inductive reasoning
Trial-and-error
less sophisticated type of problem-solving in which various solutions are tried until one is found that seems to work
Algorithm
a formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem
Deductive (top-down) reasoning
starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusion from the info given
Inductive (bottom-up) reasoning
-create a theory via generalizations
-starts with specific instances, then draws a conclusion from them
Heuristics
-aka rules of thumb
-simplified principles used to make decisions
Availabilty heuristic
relies on the info that is most readily available, rather than the total body of info on a subject in order to make a decision
Representativeness heurisitc
categorizes items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category
Base rate fallacy
using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical info
Disconfirmation principle
-if evidence obtained during testing does not confirm a hypothesis, then the hypothesis is discarded or revised
-may be prevented by confirmation bias
Confirmation bias
the tendency to focus on info that fits an individual's beliefs, while rejecting info that goes against them
Overconfidence
a tendency to erroneously interpret one's decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible
Intuition
the ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence
Recognition-primed decision model
experience and recognition of similar situations one has already experienced play a large role in decision-making and actions
Emotion
the subjective experience of a person in a certain situation
Multiple intelligences
-linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal
-argued that Western culture values linguistic and logical-mathematical the most
IQ
= (mental age/chronological age) * 100
Consciousness
one's level of awareness of both the world and one's own existence within that world
States of consciousness
-alertness
-sleep
-dreaming
-altered statews
Alertness
-a state of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think
-able to perceive, process, access info, and express that info verbally
-maintained by the prefrontal cortex, in communication with the reticular formation
Four characteristic EEG patterns in wake/sleep
beta, alpha, theta, and delta
Beta waves
-high frequency
-occur when the person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration
Alpha waves
-somewhat slower than beta, more synchronized
-occur when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed
Stage 1
-detected by the appearance of theta waves (irregular, slower frequency, higher voltage)
-occurs as soon as you doze off
Stage 2
-detected by appearance of theta waves, sleep spindles, and K complexes
-occurs as you fall more deeply asleep
Stages 3/4
-aka slow-wave sleep (SWS)
-detected by appearance of delta waves (low frequency, high-voltage)
-occurs at even deeper sleep, and is especially difficult to rouse someone from sleep
Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep
stages 1 through 4
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
-aka paradoxical sleep
-interspersed between cycles of the NREM sleep stages
-arousal levels reach that of wakefulness, but muscles are paralyzed
-dreaming most likely to occur, as well as memory consolidation
Sleep cycle
-a single complete progression through the sleep stages
-early in the night, SWS predominates
-later in night, REM sleep predominates
-increases from 50 min. in children to 90 min. in adults
-children spend more time in SWS than adults
Circadian rhythms
-internally generated rhythms which regulate our daily cycle of waking and sleeping
-mainly regulated by the horomones melatonin and cortisol
Melatonin
a serotonin-derived hormone from the pineal gland, attributed to sleepiness
Cortisol
-steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex
-levels slowly increase during early morning because increase light causes release of coritcotropin releasing factor (CRF) from hypothalamus, which causes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from anterior pituitary, which stimulates cortisol release
Activation-synthesis theory
-dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural ciruitry
-this activation can mimic incoming sensory info, and may also consist of pieces of stored memories, current and previous desires, met and unmet needs, and other experiences
Problem-solving dream theory
dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping
Cognitive process dream theory
dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness
Neurocognitive models of dreaming
unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes
Dysomnias
disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep, and include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea
Parasomnias
abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep; include night terrors and sleepwalking
Insomina
difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep; most common sleep disorder
Narcolepsy
-characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep
-symptoms are cataplexy (loss of muscle control and sudden REM during waking hours), sleep paralysis (sensation of being unable to move despite being awake) and hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations (hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening respectively)
Sleep apnea
inability to breathe during sleep
Night terrors
-most common in children
-periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep
Sleepwalking
-aka somnambulism
-occurs during SWS
Hypnosis
a state in which a person appears to be in control of his or her normal functions, but is in a highly suggestible state
Depressants
reduce nervous system activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety
Alcohol
-increases activity of GABA receptro, that causes hyperpolarization of the membrane
-causes generalized brain inhibition, including that which prevents inappropriate behavior
-increases dopamine levels
Alcohol myopia
inability to recognize consequences of actions, creating a short-sighted view of the world
Barbiturates
-historically used as anxiety-reducing and sleep medication; amobarbital and phenobarbital
-increase GABA activity
Benzodiazepines
-replaced barbiturates, less prone to overdose; alprazolam, lorazepam, diazepam, and clonazepam
-increase GABA activity
Stimulants
cause an increase in arousal in the nervous system; increase the frequency of action potentials, but does so by different mechanism
Amphetamines
-cause increased arousal by increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake
-increase heart rate and blood pressure, psychologically induce euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions of grandeur, and paranoia
Cocaine
decreases reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, although by a different mechanism
Ecstasy
designer amphetamine, causes increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, and hyperthermia
Opiates
naturally occurring opium, include morphine and codeine; bind to opioid receptors in the peripheral and central nervous system, causing a decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria
Opioids
semisynthetic derivatives, include oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin; bind to opioid receptors in the peripheral and central nervous system, causing a decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria
Heroin
-aka diacetylmorphine
-created as a substitute for morphine
Hallucinogens
-thought to be a complex interaction between various neurotransmitters, especially serotonin
-cause distortions of reality and fantasy, enhancement of sensory experiences, and introspection
-include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), peyote, mescaline, ketamine, and psilocybin-containing mushrooms
Marijuana
-considered a stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen
-contains tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) which increases GABA activity and dopamine activity
Drug addiction
-highly related to the mesolimbic reward pathway
-this pathway includes the nucleus accumbens (NAc), the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the connection between them called the medial forebrain bundle (MFB)
Attention
concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment, or sensorium
Selective attention
focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli
Divided attention
the ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time
Five components of language
-phonology
-morphology
-semantics
-syntax
-pragmatics
Phonology
refers to the actual sound of language
Morphology
the structure of words
Semantics
refers to the association of meaning with a word
Syntax
refers to how words are put together to form sentences
Pragmatics
the dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge
Prosody
the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices
Timeline of language acquisition
-9-12 months: babbling
-12-18 months: about one word per month
-18-20 months: "explosion of language" and combining words
-2-3 years: longer sentences (3 words or more)
-5 years: language rules largely mastered
Nativist (biological) theory
-credited to Noam Chomsky
-explains language acquisition as being innate and controlled by the language acquisition device (LAD)
Learning (behaviorist) theory
-proposed by B.F. Skinner
-explains language acquisition as being controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement by parents and caregivers
Social interactionist theory
-explains language acquisition as being caused by a motivation to communicate and interact with others; Lev Vygotsky
Whorfian hypothesis
-aka linguistic relativity hypothesis
-states that the lens through which we view and interpret the world is created by language
Broca's area
-located in the inferior frontal gyrus
-controls the motor function of speech via connections with the motor cortex
Wernicke's area
-located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe
-responsible for language comprehension
Arcuate fasciculus
bundle of axons that allows appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production
Atonia
skeletal muscle paralysis
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