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Urban Politics Exam 1

Terms in this set (64)

Baker v. Carr
(1962) Tennessee hadn't redrawn districts since 1901, required by state law every 10 years. Citizens being deprived of "equal protection of the law."
Found unconstitutional under Equal Protection clause of the 14th Amendment.
Booker T. Washington -
chief spokesman of African Americans after the death of Frederick Douglas
Believed in accommodations point of view - that Blacks should wait for equality from whites since they are the ones in power.
Said that "blacks must provide to the economy in order to prove worthiness"
His ideas greatly clashed with those of Dubois.
Accommodationist, economic independence and slow integration from whites
Boss Tweed
NYC machine boss, stole between $30-100 million from NYC Treasury
Ran Tammany Hall
Stole by way of fake leases, false charges, unnecessary repairs, overpriced good
Also used his own money to buy poor people coal.
Canals
building of was very expensive, complex to engineer, and cities needed help from the state to finance them.
Chief Administrative Officer
This occurs in a strong mayor system where the council and mayor are both elected
The strong mayor may then appoint a CAO
The CAO does the real work for the mayor, knowing how government is ran.
CAO usually do all the government/policy work
Mayor is still in charge of the budget
Keeping in mind that he is an employee OF the mayor; working for his/her discretion.
only responsible to the mayor, not the council - why it's different than a city manager
Chief Administrative Officer
This occurs in a strong mayor system where the council and mayor are both elected
The strong mayor may then appoint a CAO
The CAO does the real work for the mayor, knowing how government is ran.
CAO usually do all the government/policy work
Mayor is still in charge of the budget
Keeping in mind that he is an employee OF the mayor; working for his/her discretion.
only responsible to the mayor, not the council - why it's different than a city manager
Child Labor
by early 1900's, 28 states had laws regulating child labor
1916 President Woodrow Wilson backed first federal child labor law.
Kept going back and forth with the Supreme Court until 1930 child labor law.
Keating-Owen Act (1916) prohibited products manufactured by children under the age of 14 to be shipped between states
Child labor
by early 1900's, 28 states had laws regulating child labor
1916 President Woodrow Wilson backed first federal child labor law.
Kept going back and forth with the Supreme Court until 1930 child labor law.
Keating-Owen Act (1916) prohibited products manufactured by children under the age of 14 to be shipped between states
City Beautiful
showcases what city planners can do if given a chance.
Resulted in urban amenities such as parks, ponds, garden and ornate public buildings
Citizens came to expect a level of municipal services that would have been inconceivable in an earlier time
Buildings (modeled after the White City, neo-classical)
EX: Chicago World's Fair
Comes out of Columbian Exposition
deal with the city as a whole
City Managers
- show up in a council-manager style government
First city manager in Dayton, Ohio 1913
Work Council and mayor will hire the city manager
Manager is a non-elected position
Duties are limited to administrative duties, but the mayor and council still make all the decisions. City manager is responsible for day-to-day operations.
This is a business approach at running a city, managers are seen as professionals/experts
Need a degree, basically new version of CAO --- usually need an MPA
a concern was giving too much power to one person not controlled by the electorate
City/State Tensions in machine era
City/State tensions in machine era
Graft (the process by which machines stole taxes) made middle/upper elites upset
Practices, especially bribery, used to secure illicit gains in politics or business; corruption
Looked to state legislatures to regulate cities
Many cities lost authority
Dillon's Rule: Municipality cannot change state law, cities are not autonomous, state legislatures control the cities
City had power/money and is corrupt, state supposed to have power but no really
Spain features: city planning
"Law of the Indies"
Cities had right angle corners and were usually centered around a plaza
Types:
Missionary (Church centered)
Pueblo (Commerce centered)
Presidio (Military centered)
France
Features: Built around waterways and topography
Types: Commerce centered
NYC as an example (New Amsterdam)
founders were individual traders looking for wealth, not colonies
Dutch
like Spanish because they did serious planning
New Amsterdam (NYC) they created a 25 foot wide Main Street that led into the central market place (the Broad way)
they were into fur trading and slave supplying
British
Features: Deep-Port oriented, no set plan
Types:
Religious
Commerce
common themes: Port cities, immigrant depots, transfer for resources in and out
Columbian Exhibition
AKA The Chicago World Fair
1893 Celebration in Chicago for the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus landing in America
Done to get the Indian vote (vote to make Columbus Day a national holiday through political machine involvement)
Commission Government
Organization: Voters selected a small governing commission (5-7 members), this commission is the legislative body responsible for taxation, appropriations, ordinances, and functions. Individually each commissioner is responsible for one specific aspect of municipal affairs (fire, water, police, ect.)
They were both the executive and legislative authority
Different aspects: One commissioner is designated chairman or mayor but his function was to preside over meetings or ceremonial functions.
Commissioners engaged in both policy and administration
Commissioners would often not agree with each other
Built personal empires, handing out jobs/contracts
Was a direct result of the 1900 Galveston Hurricane- also known as Galveston Plan
A blend of executive and legislative branches and ultimately precursor to the City Manager Plan
Council Manager Government
What most cities run under
1913 - Dayton, Ohio was the 1st of any size city to do this
Majority of cities are over 25,000 pop.
Mayors don't really have power, so most cities that move to this have 'at large' governments. The mayor retains the power of persuasion but is largely ceremonial.
City manager has a ton of power - power that is not elected, so it can make it hard to get rid of them if the council likes them.
Culture of Privatism
Limited government is the best ofr of government, Jefferson's ideal
The idea that progress comes through individual rather than through collective endeavors
Freedom is preserved not by government, but by absence of government
Cities are ECONOMIC entities at the end of the day
Dillon's Rule
Chief Justice of the Iowa Supreme Court, John F. Dillon
Ruled that states could rightfully exert total control over cities with no restrictions whatsoever
"Municipal governments only have powers granted to them expressly by state legislatures"
Led to home-Rule (because cities didn't want to ask state permission for everything)
Dumbbells
Style of tenement; essentially communal living for poor/immigrant families
Shaped like dumbbells with hole in middle for "air", actually turns into dump
Elton Mayo
Mayo concluded that productivity partly depended on the informal social patterns of interaction in the work group.
Lights on/off
Employees felt important and more than just 'cogs' in a machine
First time management asked the workers what they wanted, made them feel like a part of the company
Productivity is about the attitudes of the workers towards their jobs and companies
Ethnic particularism
The ability f policymakers to further their careers by catering to narrow interests rather than to broader national platform
Political machines would get one or two groups to vote for them
TOO much = vulnerable to ethnic conflict
What book says about EP aka Minimum winning coalition. It means when a machine gets enough votes from one group (eg Irish) or two groups to win an election, it won't reach out to other groups. It's minimum winning coalitions.
Floater
Person who hangs around and votes for money. Votes in exchange for cash
These people were used by the machines during elections
"Floaters better grab your life vests" (cling to whoever in charge)
Fragmented Metropolis
American urban regions have become increasingly fragmented into patchwork of separate municipalities
One of the consequences is that it may help perpetuate residential segregation
Another consequence is that it makes nearly impossible to vise regional solutions to important policy issues such as urban sprawl
People group together
Whites in suburb
Caused redundancies in municipal privileges
Frederick Taylor
Wrote The Principles of Scientific Management in 1911, these principles became known as Taylorism
Develop a "science" for every job, including rules motion, standardized work implements, and proper working conditions.
Carefully select workers with the right abilities for the job
Carefully train these workers to do the job, and give them proper incentives to cooperate with the job science
Support these workers by planning their work and by smoothing the way as they go about their jobs.
Other Taylor Principles
move jobs to hierarchy
fixed, not fluid motion
split locations for manufacturing and office work
compartmentalize the office (cubicles come from this)
division of labor
office features are symbols of status
product is outcome, not customer focused
demand must exceed supply
use of differential pay scale
Galveston Plan
move jobs to hierarchy
fixed, not fluid motion
split locations for manufacturing and office work
compartmentalize the office (cubicles come from this)
division of labor
office features are symbols of status
product is outcome, not customer focused
demand must exceed supply
use of differential pay scale
Growth of municipal and urban services
Happened during progressive era (because government began giving money/providing services to cities = no need for political machines)
Blossomed under FDR
Wanted to attract more people to their cities
Hazen Pingree
Called attention to corruption of machines
Fought for public use of public resources
Ie. Telephone/electric companies for low rates
Municipal ownership of public transportation, utilities regulated
Increased revenue by raising taxes on wealthy and businesses
Home Rule
1875, Missouri becomes 1st state to write a general home rule charter for cities
1925, 14 states had home rule and now almost all do
Local (city) governments in home rule states are free to pass laws and ordinances as they see fit to further their operations, within the bounds of the state and federal constitutions.
Grant cities the authority to set their own tax rates, regulate their internal affairs, and decide how and where to provide services.
In this way, the cities would be free to realize the full potential offered by their new and efficient governmental structure
Immigration to America
Irish moved because Irish Potato famine (mostly poor)
German moved because of civil war (had money, better educated, moved to farms and the west)
Italians/Eastern Europe/ Jews (were poor too)
Peak in late 1800s-WWII
Regulation started aggressively after WWII
in 1920, 79% of Eastern and Southern European immigrants lived in urban areas vs 69% of British and Northern European immigrants
Jane Addams
co-founded one of the first settlements in the US, (Hull House in Chicago)
The house provided services for the immigrant and poor population living in the Chicago area. Over the years, the organization grew to include more than 10 buildings and extended its services to include childcare, educational courses, an art gallery, a public kitchen and several other social programs.
Keating Owen Act
Prohibited products manufactured by children under 14 that are shipped between states
Overturned in 1918 in Hammer v. Dagenhart calling it a breach of state rights
First national child labor law came around during this time
Law of the Indies
Laws issued by spanish crown that regulated social, political, and economic life in areas in america that were taken from the spanish - From the spanish
it made the grid & plaza system for spanish cities
centered around the church
Marcus Garvey
Jamaican who praised black pride
wanted blacks to segregate from their own community and provide their own economic services
one of the first African Americans to call for "separation"
millions joined "Back to Africa Movement"
wanted African Americans to move back to Africa
actually bought a boat to do so
DuBois and other African Americans were skeptical and regarded him as an insincere, selfish imposter
Used the mails to raise money for a steamship line to take blacks to Africa
Convicted of using the mail to defraud and went to jail until Pres Coolidge pardoned and deported him 4 years later
Mayo Light Study
Elton Mayo, asked if light in offices affected productivity
Also, is productivity psychological or physiological?
Finding: the amount of lighting had no real effect on productivity
the reason was because he had asked the workers to be a part of the study which caused improvement- felt like they mattered
Mercantile City
19th century city, also known as a "walking city"
these cities, also known as "city of merchants", flowed along the waterfront
Districts began to arise, and formal worker/owner relations arose
Was marked by social differences and inequalities
People who live in these cities were usually wealthy
the poorer of these people live in areas away from the central part of the city
this marked the vast inequalities
Metropolitan statistical area:
area where 50,000 people live (relatively high population concentration); There are about 363 MSAs in the United States; oldest measure & others emerged to try to deal with more nuanced populations; 83% of the population lives in 1
Muckrakers
Investigative journalism in the late 19th and early 20th century
(i.e. - The Jungle by Upton Sinclair - Meatpacking)
these stories led to reform
moved from just reporting news to actually investigating/creating stories (about working conditions/corruption)
The muckrakers' stories gave a feeling of drama and urgency to the cause of reform.
Before this, local papers were highly partisan and used as mouthpieces for politicians/parties = ignored at national level
After Civil War, newspapers become cheaper, so more people read them and telegraph/telephone moves stories around country quickly
Journalism starts creating news as much as it is reporting it
Bad consequence: Yellow (tabloid) journalism
Good: report poor city conditions
Jacob Riis How the Other Half Lives
shows lives and housing of poor in NYC, sympathetic to ppl and outraged the city
Lincoln Steffens Shame of the Cities
Urban corruption in 7 major cities
Leads to reform
Omnibus
Cheaper than carriages, easier than walking, fit up to 12
Allows average person to live further away (middle class goes to suburb)
allowed for people of all classes and origins to meet and become intertwined
"For everyone"
changed physical intimacy norms
Parr Machine
Texas County political machine
dominated Duval county in the 20th century
relied heavily on the abundance of the Mexican American population
granted LBJ the 1948 Senate Primary
LBJ called on Parr for the votes
LBJ needed 200 votes and precinct 13 came up with them (Stevenson called Texas Rangers to go check the legitimacy of the votes and when they got there the votes that had the same handwriting were "lost" lol)
Had a 90% + turnout in every election (usual rate is ~30%)
anything above 50-60% = corruption
Pendergast Machine
initiated in Kansas City, Missouri in mid 1940s
James Pendergast wins horse race opening taverns which gets him involved in politics
He took care of people
Had (2) components
1) Rabbits: proficient business dealers led by Joe Shannon
rabbits get better deals than goats
2) Goats: Controlled elections led by Pendergast (Truman was affiliated with the goats) They controlled the city and the county
goats are bigger than rabbits
After FDR's New Deal, the machine got stronger by controlling the federal funds
However, the New Deal did kill machines who supported services in most places since most of them did not control the county, they only controlled the city
Political Machines
Organization:
Top Level: Mayor, Party Leader, Boss
Role: Controls "big" patronage =police,fire, sanitation,construction
Middle Level: Alderman
Role: Each Alderman has a Ward; 1 Ward = 30-40 precincts
Lower Level: Precinct or Ward Captains
Role: Responsible for delivering the vote; 1 precinct=400-600 vote
Control over low level jobs = supervisors on case
Emergence:
Came from growth of a mass electorate
1789: 5% all white males eligible to vote
1840: 80% of all eligible males voted (Jacksonian Era)
Time of high immigration, ideology usually secondary
Various Machines:
Boss Tweed/Tammany Hall (NYC), Frank Hague (NJ), James & Tom Pendergast (Kansas City)
Political Reforms in Progressive era
redesign election process to undermine power of machines: Lower Class Voters → Middle Class Voters
movement to 'at large' elections - instead of districts becomes city votes so harder for machines to control the votes
initiative, referendum, and recalls - ways in which the citizens can have power (recalls - redo elections initiative - people get signatures to vote on a question & referendum = posing question to citizens)
direct primary (people vote for party reps vs. the party chooses)
direct election of senators (more representative of people than house)
public elections (run by county, not parties)
Non-partisan elections (ballots without party names, made it harder for illiterate voters to choose their alderman's printed name)
literacy tests (disenfranchised immigrant voters -minority/rural/black voters)
civil service hiring system ( got rid of patronage, introduction of tests to get jobs)
Australian ballot (hidden vote, completely anonymous, no vote buying)
voter registration (also depressed voting)
Politics of growth
cities = place for profit & personal advancement;
conflicts break out over how to use public money on projects- is it the best use?
"culture of privatism", support to promote local economic prosperity is bounded with people's attachments to place and community; eminent domain (Kelo vs. New London)
Progressive era 1890's to 1920's
Took two general forms: political and social reform
From Progressive perspective: politics and politicians were part of the problem
Progressive vision for a new America depended upon changing defn. of government and politics
sees the movement to expert in government
Upper middle class - men & women
Progressivism was a reform movement without a consistent strategy but with a simple agenda—to improve society.
Progressives believed that if the public knew the truth about political issues, it would take action to eliminate abuses.
Therefore, the movement relied on social scientific analyses and journalistic exposes to reveal flaws in the system and proposed a democratizing alteration in the political process
Railroads 1850's
mode of transportation
vital for the economy of cities
cities went into huge debts because of contracts with RR companies
did not run RR through black cities
RR promoters played one town against another in search for better subsidies
created a class of "robber barons"
Where you put the RR changed the landscape of America (much like interstates today)
by 1880s standard gauge sizes
Saloons
vital for creating local ties with political machines
most Alderman/political bosses/ people in high positions were saloon owners/associated with saloons
most voters would gather here every day b/c homes were too crowded
Scientific Management
"Experts know everything"
"Trust the Experts"
"There is a best way to do something"
"Defer your opinion to experts"
See Taylorism
Settlement Houses
Most influential area of urban reform (starts in London 1884)
Move away from Social Darwinism, environment shapes individual- people not inherently bad
Very important for middle-class women, gives them another role
Ex. Hull House- Jane Addams, Chicago
Improve conditions of laborers by bringing them education and appreciation of the arts
Workers were naïve and had romantic notions "save society" paternalistic
Mvmt waned after WW1
Move to these services becoming part of the bureaucratic gov
Shift from poor as clients to poor as partners to help improve area
Led to development of social work as a distinct profession
Social Darwinism
In 1859, "Origin of the Species" is published, gives justification to inequalities in urban environments
EX: unemployment, poverty, starvation
Essentially claims "survival of the fittest"
Says reform attempts in social process are disruptive
Says wealth was indicator of superior work
Says it isn't the government's job to help you succeed
led to eugenics
Social Gospel
1870s-1890s
rejects Social Darwinism
has reaction to urbanization and industrialization
they see the church as an instrument of reform
They hold the belief that people are not intrinsically bad, but conditions that the condition they live in corrupt them
they attack the saloons, because if you close down the saloon, you close the machine
Church focuses the attention in the afterlife and the reward after
they set up soup kitchens, they believe in the idea of Kingdom of God on Earth
Churches get involved in the working conditions of the poor, they create many programs for people
belief that people aren't intrinsically bad, but their environments/conditions corrupt them
Social Reformers
Protectors of the victims of industrialization
Women and child laborers
People injured on the job
Elderly (out of work, pre-social security)
were often civic reformers
progressives could be social reformer, civic reformer, or both
Strong Mayor System
Mayor holds administrative authority
appoints and dismisses department heads (w/o council's approval)
short ballot to restrict number of elected officials
manages budget
can appoint chief administrative office
policy is enacted between the mayor and council, can lead to gridlock
Mayor has veto power
More common in cities with big issues (big city issues) (i.e. - Guliani of NYC)
mayor has veto power
Tammany Hall
Run by Boss Tweed (only 3 yrs in NYC), started as anti-federalist club
Transformed into center of machine politics, immigrants poured in
Tweed took $30-$100 million in public funds
made a courthouse for $12.5 million when it actually cost $250k to make
Taylorism
Frederick Taylor writes "Principles of Scientific Method", becomes known as Taylorism
Develops science for every job, including rules motion, standardized work implements, and proper working conditions
Carefully select, train, and incentivize workers in a uniform manner
Triangle Shirtwaist Fire
typically factories would be closed on Saturdays, but they would open it to minority women on the 8th and 9th floor to cut clothing to fit women
One day the floor caught fire
doors were locked so they couldn't steal
The women could not escape, some jumped out of the windows. (Firefighter ladders were not long enough to reach the floor)
Many women were burned alive, families had to identify the bodies
This led to various changes in building codes:
change in fire department rules to prevent incidents like this, door now open outwards, sprinkler systems
integrates the idea of social Gospel - the environment changes people, if you can change that then you could improve the lives of the people
Sparked Rise of Urban Liberalism in Progressive era
56 welfare laws resulted from this
Urban Liberalism
Ideology of government intervention to ensure the safety and promote the welfare of its citizens
Labor, welfare, regulation of big businesses, electoral reform
Urban lawmakers usually were in favor of government regulation than trust busting (breaking up of monopolies) because regulation stabilized jobs more often
Immigrant law makers associated with urban liberalism actively fought against many Progressive causes
urban services in cities
Fire Department
Police Department
Roads
Sewers
Rail Road
Urbanization in America (views of responsibility, effects on services)
Causes:
Immigration (more factory workers)
Industrialization (more factories, need more laborers, immigrants are coming in, mass production)
transportation (bigger cities because now people can move out further)
Effects Overall:
Strain on services
city became more responsible for services, rather than individuals
weak mayor system
Mayor lacks administrative power
mayor and council are elected, mayor presides over the council meetings
Council are the ones who do the work, basically run the government
power is diffused among the council, so 1 corrupt politician won't ruin the entire local government
comes out of Jacksonian era (1830s)
designed for cities with simple problems and non-diverse populations
almost everyone in this type of government is elected
It is unclear who is doing what - no one person is accountable for problems
Weak Mayor System
Mayor lacks administrative power
mayor and council are elected, mayor presides over the council meetings
Council are the ones who do the work, basically run the government
power is diffused among the council, so 1 corrupt politician won't ruin the entire local government
comes out of Jacksonian era (1830s)
designed for cities with simple problems and non-diverse populations
almost everyone in this type of government is elected
It is unclear who is doing what - no one person is accountable for problems
W. E. B. Dubois
supported equal rights for blacks
WEB thought Booker's ideas would take AAs back and wouldn't make progress no matter how much they ingratiate themselves with whites because they still don't have equal rights
opposed the Atlanta compromise that was proposed by Booker T. Washington
The Philadelphia Negro 1899 major early work in social science reform
Looks at structural causes of poverty and examined black political and economic contributions to society
Conditions are creating poverty and people and behavior
Used scientific method to investigate and compile sociological studies of black ghetto dwellers
The Soul of Black Folks he challenged Washington's accommodation message
He claimed blacks could make no real progress as long as they were denied equal rights
His beliefs were embodied in the Niagara Mvmt in 1905
Called for freedom of speech and of press, abolition of discrimination, and a recognition of the principle of brotherhood
Forerunner of NAACP founded in 1909
Got some SC decisions in their favor
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