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Anatomy Lab Exam 2

Terms in this set (122)

tunica means
layer, coat, sheath, covering
tunica intima/interna
inner most layer
tunica media
middle layer
tunica externa
outer most layer
Endothelium
cells in direct contact with blood separating it from vessel wall
Basement membrane
anchor for endothelium cells, barrier, mostly proteins
Smooth muscle
fine control / gradual response, can help direct blood flow in veins a little (venoconstriction)
Elastic fibers
allow vessel to stretch (arteries closer to heart need more because pressure there is higher)
vein (under microscope)
1. "flattened" appearance
2. larger lumen (offers low resistance to blood flow)
3. low resistance
4. thinner walls
5. tunica media has small amounts of elastic tissue and smooth muscle
how to measure blood pressure
1. place cuff an inch or two above elbow
2. place stethoscope just below cuff but above elbow
3. increase pressure to 160-180 mmHg, you should not hear a sound yet
4. slowly let the pressure out by turning the valve
a. the first sound you hear is the systolic blood pressure and record when you hear it
5. keep lowering the pressure until the sound disappears
a. when the sound disappears is the diastolic blood pressure and record it
BP =
Cardiac Output x Peripheral Resistance
PR related to
blood vessel length, blood vessel diameter, viscosity of blood
blood pressure
Decreases as you get further from heart
Arteries have ---- BP than arterioles
higher
Arterioles have a ---- BP than capillaries where the pressure is almost zero
higher
Blood pressure
is the force that blood exerts against against a blood vessel wall (using sphygmomanometer)
Systolic
peak arterial pressure - BP obtained during ventricular contraction
Diastolic
minimum arterial BP - BP occurring during ventrical relaxation
Ratio of blood pressure
120 (systolic) / 80 (diastolic)
Pressure on artery causes
turbulent flow
hypotension
1. low blood pressure
2. systolic of less than 90 mmHg or diastolic of less than 60 mmHg
3. can cause dizziness or fainting, more seriously deprive the brain, or other organs oxygen and nutrients
hypertension
1. high blood pressure
2. systolic of more than 140 mmHg or diastolic above 100 mmHg
3. strains the heart, puts extra pressure on it
4. risk factor for stroke, diseases of the arteries and kidney
causes of and treatments of hypotension
1. caused by low blood volume, anemia, hormonal changes, heart problems, etc
2. treatments can include - blood transfusion, increased electrolytes, blood sugar control, hormones
causes of and treatments of hypertension
1. majority of cases have no specific known cases, other causes by kidney and heart problems or general aging
2. treatment is generally exercise and better diet - medication for serious cases
Why does blood pressure changes occur during changes in posture and activity?
because the flow must be matched to demand (for oxygen, nutrients, waste removal, etc.) During low activity, there is a lower heart rate / cardiac output. (Ex: increase flow to intestines and reduced flow to legs) During high activity, there is up to 20x blood flow to muscle increase. (Ex: reduced flow to intestines and increased flow to legs)
general distribution of the lymphatic vessels, trunks, ducts, and nodes
Lymphatic capillaries lymphatic / collecting vessels lymphatic trunks lymphatic / collecting ducts subclavian veins (mixes with blood)
Lymphatic capillaries
where interstitial fluid is first picked up to become lymph, meshed in amongst blood capillaries
Lymphatic vessel (collecting vessel)
carries lymph and combines into lymphatic trunks, has a bit of smooth muscle to move lymph along and has valves
Lymphatic trunks
where collecting vessels combine, by this point each one is draining from a large portion of the body, named for the area they drain lymph from
Jugular
head and neck
Subclavian
arms and shoulder
Bronchomediastinal
lungs
Intercostal
chest
Intestinal
stomach, intestines, spleen, part of liver
Lumbar
lower limbs, lower back
Lymphatic ducts
don't drain evenly
Right lymphatic duct
1. Right thoracic cavity
2. Receives drainage from right arm / thorax / head
3. Empties into right subclavian vein
Thoracic duct / left lymphatic duct
1. Just below diaphragm
2. Receives drainage from everything else
3. Empties into left subclavian vein
Lymph nodes
most numerous lymphatic organ (~450), cleans lymph and where lymphocytes are activated (T and B)
Lymphatic nodules
clumps of lymphocytes inside lymph nodes that grow in response to infection (stain purple), where lymph is cleaned
Red bone marrow
where lymphocytes are made (also other formed elements but here we mostly care about WBCs)
Thymus
does not filter lymph itself but a site of lymphocyte development and production via hormone release (also an endocrine organ) - large number of lymphocytes
Spleen
largest single lymphatic organ, filters old RBCs and platelets from blood, and functionally similar to a very large lymph node - large number of lymphocytes
Tonsils
deal with infectious agents in mouth (eaten or inhaled pathogens large source of potential infections - large number of lymphocytes
Lymph vessel with valve (under microscope)
1. Flaps of the valve
a. allows the lymph to flow in only one direction
b. lymph is easily pushed "forward" through the flaps of the valve but if the lymph tries to flow "backward" the flaps of the valve will be pushed together, closing the lumen of the vessel
Lymph node (under microscope)
1. fibrous capsule
2. walls or trabeculae that divide the interior of the node
3. lymphatic nodules (small clusters) of lymphocytes
4. afferent lymphatic vessels
a. as the lymph flows through the node the lymphocytes are exposed to any antigens carried in the lymph
b. the area surrounding these nodules contains phagocytic macrophages that remove microorganisms, cancer cells, or foreign antigens from the lymph, and subsequently "present" them to the lymphocytes
c. they are an important site for exposing lymphocytes to foreign antigens
Tonsils
1. made up of lymphatic nodules located under the mucosal layer
a. these nodules are not within a capsule, and they do not filter lymph
b. they intercept any sort of microorganism (virus, bacteria) that might be coming into the body via the mouth or nose
2. during an infection, the tonsils often become swollen as large numbers of leucocytes move into them - "swollen glands"
Thymus
1. after forming in the red bone marrow, some lymphocytes go to the thymus where they complete their development
2. T cells then leave the thymus and go to one of the many lymphatic tissues / organs elsewhere in the body
a. this is accomplished during the early years of life, and after puberty the thymus begins to shrink, and is replaced by fibrous tissue
3. developing T cells (they are dark-staining) in this slide
Spleen
1. contains many lymphatic nodules that are packed around distended, leaky blood vessels called sinusoids - white pulp
2. the lymphocytes are exposed to the blood and can detect the presence of bacteria, viruses, or other antigens that might be in the blood
3. the tissue surrounding the white pulp contains many macrophages - red pulp
4. as blood flows through the spleen, the lymphocytes are exposed to foreign antigens that may be in the blood, and the macrophages remove microorganisms, cancer cells, foreign antigens, and old erythrocytes from the blood
Peyer's patches
1. these lymphatic nodules are found in wall of the small intestine where they intercept microorganisms trying to enter our body via the GI tract (they are very similar to the tonsils)
2. sometimes referred to as the gut-associated lymphoid tissue - GALT
Parts of the lymph node
1. lymphatic nodules
2. afferent lymphatic vessels
3. efferent lymphatic vessels
How it functions to clean lymph
1. afferent lymphatic carries lymph to the lymph node from peripheral tissues and penetrate the capsule of the lymph node on the side opposite the hilum
2. afferent vessels deliver lymph to the subcapsular space, a meshwork of reticular fibers, macrophages, and dendritic cells (dendritic cells are involved in the initation of the immune response
3. lymph next flows into the outer cortex, which contains B cells within germinal centers that resemble those of lymphoid nodules
4. lymph then flows through lymph sinuses in the deep cortex which is dominated by T cells
5. lymph continues into the medullary sinus at the core of the lymph node (contains B cells and plasma cells)
6. efferent lymphatic leaves the lymph node at the hilum and these vessels collect lymph from the medullary sinus and carry it towards the venous circulation
What were the positive and negative controls used for?
To know what you are looking for good lab technique
Which of the donors has been infected with HIV?
1-, 2+, 3+, 4-
What do the terms "false positive" and false negative" refer to?
False positive are positive result that is false and false negative is negative result that is positive
Lymphoma
tumors involving lymphatic tissues, have enlarged lymph nodes
AIDS (HIV)
depletes T-cells in the body leading to increasing weakening of immune system that leads to death from normally less-lethal pathogen and transferred mostly from unprotected sex with infected person
Autoimmune disorders
blanket term for failure of the antibodies to properly distinguished between body and foreign matter, antibodies target body
Multiple sclerosis
myelin sheath of nerve axons is attacked, damage to nerve cells. Genetic links, environmental factors, link to vitamin D levels
Rheumatoid arthritis
inflammatory response involving the joints, joint lining attacked by immune system. Unknown cause though genetic link suspected
Lupus
immune system attacks healthy tissues all over body, not concentrated on one area. Due to genetics and environmental risks. Affects more women then men.
Psoriasis
affects skin, body mistakes skin for pathogen and then sends signals to overproduce more skin cells. Skin cells mature faster too, itchy dry scaly skin. Exact causes unknown, thought to be related to something triggering immune system
Allergies
reaction to environmental antigens that cause a response. Sensitive to stuff in environment that isn't harmful
Immediate hypersensitivity
most common type of allergies, provoked by specific exposure to a certain antigen (peanut butter, cat allergy, etc.)
Delayed hypersensitivity
reaction can take 2-3 days to develop. Cell mediated response instead of antibody mediated (poison ivy)
Conducting division
passages that involve flow of air (the majority of them)
a. Nostrils to the bronchioles
b. Function - warm, filter, and moisten air and conduct it into the lungs
Respiratory division
areas that involve the exchange of gases
a. Alveoli and also gas exchanging areas of the distal airway (respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts make up 10% of gas exchange)
b. Function - gas exchange
Tracheal epithelium (under microscope)
1. Pseudostratified, ciliated, columnar epithelium
2. Tall cells with cilia projecting into what would be the lumen of the trachea
3. Goblet cells (lightly stained oval-shaped appearance)
a. Secrete the mucus that coats the surface of the epithelium (beneath the epithelium is the underlying connective tissue
Trachea (under microscope)
1. Epithelium - thin, dark layer along the top, and the underlying connective tissue in which the rings of hyaline cartilage are embedded
Lung (under microscope)
1. Branches of blood vessels and bronchi / bronchioles
2. Two tubes - which is a bronchiole and a branch of the pulmonary artery
a. Bronchiole - epithelium has mostly cuboidal epithelial cells some are ciliated
b. Artery - simple, squamous epithelium (endothelium)
c. Both have smooth muscle in their wall
3. (low power) most of the lung volume is made up of air-filled alveoli
a. each alveolus is surrounded by a thin wall of simple, squamous epithelium
b. where a bronchiole leads into an alveolar duct
Nose and nasal cavities
serves to warm, cleanse, and humidify inhaled air, detects odors, serves as a resonating chamber that amplifies voice
a. External nares - your nostrils
b. Nasal septum - wall that separates your nostrils
c. Nasal conchae - bone "shelf" that forces air to flow in steady pattern in breathing passage, looks somewhat like elongated sea shell
Paranasal sinuses
air filled spaces (paired) that decrease head weight, buffer for blows to the head, speech / vocalizing function
a. Ethmoid - between nose and eyes
b. Sphenoid - under pituitary gland, behind ethmoid
c. Maxillary - inferior to the eyes
d. Frontal - above the eyes
Hard palate
roof of your mouth, bony plate of the skull leads into soft palate, important for speech and feeding
Soft palate
soft tissue, roof of the back of your mouth, closes off nasal passages during swallowing
Pharynx
muscular funnel to larynx. Conducts air (and food) into throat
a. Nasopharynx
b. Oropharynx
c. Laryngopharynx
Nasopharynx
back of the nasal cavity
Oropharynx
back of the mouth, lined by squamous stratified epithelium
Laryngopharynx
leads to larynx / esophagus where respiratory / digestion systems split, lined with a squamous stratified epithelium
Larynx
the "voice box" involved in breathing, speech, and protecting trachea from food aspiration
Thyroid cartilage
forms Adam's apple, largest cartilage that makes up larynx structure. Above thyroid gland and top of larynx
Cricoid cartilages
ring-like cartilage that connects the larynx to the trachea
Epiglottis
flap that covers larynx during swallowing, covers airway so food doesn't go into trachea (larynx goes up, epiglottis pushed down by tongue to cover trachea)
Arytenoid cartilage
speech function, change position and tension of vocal folds, on posterior portion of larynx above cricoid cartilage
Vestibular folds
no speech function, close larynx during swallowing "false vocal cords"
Vocal cords / vocal folds
produce sound when air passes through them
Trachea
"wind pipe" connecting pharynx and larynx to bronchi in lungs
a. Cartilaginous rings - 16-20 rings that protect trachea from collapsing when you inhale
b. Carina - lower most trachea cartilage, directs air to left / right lung
Primary bronchi
initial branching from trachea, leads to three branches in right lung and two in the left lung
Secondary bronchi
branch from primary bronchi, branch into 3 branches in the right lung, two in the left lung (like primary). Extend to each lung lobe
Tertiary bronchi
branch from secondary bronchi, turn into bronchopulmonary segment
Bronchioles
continuation of the airways in the lungs, lack supportive cartilage and end at terminal bronchioles that branch to alveoli
Alveoli
site of gas exchange via diffusion with blood (from pulmonary circuit), covered in capillaries for this purpose
Lobes of the lung -
Costal vs mediastinal surfaces -
i. Costal - area of lung that presses against rib cage
ii. Mediastinal - concave part of lung
b. Lobes -
i. Superior - on right and left
ii. Middle - just on the right
iii. Inferior - on right and left
c. Hilum - slit in the lung through which the lung receives the main bronchus, blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves
Pleura
Visceral pleura - membrane that makes up inner surface of lung, extends into "fissures" on lung
b. Parietal pleura - visceral pleura folds in on itself (at Hilum) to make a second membrane on outside that attaches to ribcage / diaphragm
c. Pleural cavity - space between the parietal and visceral pleura, slippery pleural fluid, more of a "potential" space
Diaphragm
separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity, main muscle of respiration
a. Contraction - expands the lungs during inspiration
b. Relaxation - pressed up against the lung and lungs are at minimal volume
Phrenic nerve
originates in the neck and passes down between the lung and the heart to reach the diaphragm. Used in breathing as it passes motor information to the diaphragm and receives sensory info from it
Vagus nerve
cranial nerve, responsible in speech, swallowing, keeping the larynx open for breathing, slowing heart rate, monitoring and initiating digestive processes, and modulating inflammation
Pulmonary ventilation
contraction and relaxation of muscles to move air in and out
Inspiration (inhalation)
air in
Expiration (exhalation)
air out
Intrapulmonary pressure
pressure of gases /air in the lungs airways
a. If falls below the atmospheric pressure the air flows into the lungs - inspiration
b. If rises above atmospheric pressure, air flows out of the lungs - expiration
Intrapleural pressure
pressure in the pleural cavity between the parietal and the visceral pleura
Anatomic dead space
dead space due to portion of respiratory system external to alveoli (in air carrying ducts)
Tidal volume (VT)
amount of gas an individual expires during normal quiet breathing (normally breathing in and out)
Respiratory rate
number of breaths per minute (or other unit of time)
Respiratory minute volume
volume of gas inhaled / exhaled per minute
Alveolar ventilation rate
respiratory rate x (tidal volume - dead space)
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
amount of gas an individual can exhale beyond the tidal expiration (exhale normally then push all the gas out that you can)
Residual volume (RV)
amount of gas remaining in the lungs after maximal expiration (blow all the way out and gas remains in RV)
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
amount of gas an individual can inhale above the tidal inspiration (sitting and make a normal tidal inspiration and take deep breath all the way in)
Inspiratory capacity
amount of gas an individual can inhale starting at a tidal expiration (breath out normally and take a big deep breath all the way in) - includes tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume
Functional residual capacity (FRC)
amount of gas remaining in lungs after tidal expiration - includes expiratory reserve volume and residual volume
Vital capacity
amount of gas that can be exhale after maximal inspiration (big deep breath and blow it all the way out as far as you can) - includes inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume
Total lung volume (capacity)
amount of gas in the lungs after maximal inspiration (take big deep breath and hold it) - includes - inspiration reserve volume, tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, and residual volume
Forced vital capacity (FVC)
amount of air which can be forcibly exhaled from lungs
Forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1)
the volume of air or the percentage of vital capacity that can be exhaled in one second
major respiratory muscles
Inspiration -
1. Diaphragm - separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity, main muscle of respiration
a. Contraction - expands the lungs during inspiration
b. Relaxation - pressed up against the lung and lungs are at minimal volume
2. External intercostals
3. Internal intercostals
4. Pectoralis major
5. Scaleness
6. Sternocleidomastoid
Expiration -
1. Internal intercostals
2. Diaphragm
3. Rectus abdominis
4. External abdominal oblique
After holding breath for maximal inspiration, and then exhaling a little bit of air helps you hold
your breath a bit longer because
the deflating lung makes vagus nerve stop firing
After hyperventilating, you can hold your breath for a longer time because
you get rid of extra CO2
pH is related to
to the number of hydrogen ion (H+) in solution (more = acidic, less = basic)
pH is body controlled by this equation:
CO2 + H2O <-> HCO3- + H+
(Can go both ways and it depends on amount of CO2 / O2 in body)
CO2 exhaling is reacting directly with
with the bicarbonate and the Proton is making the solution more acidic
CO2 enters the blood stream and blood becomes slightly more acidic because of this portion
CO2 concentration is what makes you feel like you want to breath
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