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Anatomy and Physiology (Paramedic)

Terms in this set (534)

Frontal (coronal) plane

Transverse (axial) plane

Sagittal (lateral) plane

Midsagittal plane

(midline) left and right equal halves

pertaining to armpit

pertaining to upper arm

pertaining to cheek

pertaining to heart

pertaining to neck

pertaining to skull

pertaining to skin

pertaining to shoulder

pertaining to thigh

pertaining to stomach

pertaining to buttocks

pertaining to liver

pertaining to groin

pertaining to lower back

pertaining to the breast

pertaining to nose

pertaining to inferior posterior region of the head

pertaining to the bones surrounding the eye

pertaining to superior posterior region of the head

pertaining to the front of the knee

pertaining to the chest

pertaining to the perineum

pertaining to sole of foot

pertaining to posterior knee

pertaining to lungs

pertaining to kidneys

pertaining to sacrum

pertaining to temples of skull

pertaining to navel

pertaining to sole of foot or palm of hand

moving the distal part of a limb closer to the trunk

moving the distal part of a limb farther from the trunk

refers to any position in which pt is lying down or leaning back

Trendelenburg position

body is supine with head lower than feet

Recovery position

-aka. left lateral recumbent position
-maintains airway in unresponsive pt

number of protons in an atom

protons + neutrons

when an element's atoms have unequal protons and neutrons

Synthesis reaction

=reaction that occurs when two or more reactants (Atoms) bond to form a more complex product or structure
-Example: A + B -> AB
-important for growth and repair

Decomposition reaction

=reaction that occurs when bonds within a reactant molecule break and form simpler atoms, molecules, or ions
-Example: AB -> A + B
-important for decomposition and digestion

Exchange reaction

=reaction where parts of reacting molecules are shuffled around to produce new produces
-example: AB + CD -> AD + CB

Reversible reaction

=reaction where the products of the reaction can change back into the reactants they originally were
-Example: A + B <-- --> AB

promotes chemical reactions by lowering activation energy requirements

-substances that release ions in water
-salt or acids
-chemicals dissolved in blood

Organic substances

-carbohydrates
-lipids
-proteins
-nucleic acids

Ways that material can pass thru the cell

-simple diffusion
-osmosis
-facilitated diffusion
-active transport

hollow filamentous structures that make up various components of a cell and provide movement of the cell, such as flagella and cilia

specialized cell division that produces sperm and egg

Types ot tissue

-epithelial
-connective
-muscle
-nervous

division of the nucleus of a cell

division of the cytoplasm of a cell

Active transport

-method used to move compounds across a cell membrane
-against concentration gradient
-required ATP

-major source of energy for all chemical reactions in body

type of connective tissue containing large amounts of fat

Antecubital fossa

anterior surface at the bend of the elbow

Anterior triangle

area of neck that is bordered by sternocleidomastoid muscle, anterior midline of the neck, and the inferior border of the mandible

Appendicular region

division of the skeletal system that includes the extremities and their attachments to the body

a division of the skeletal system that includes the head, neck, and trunk

extension off of a nerve cell body that conducts impulses to adjacent cells

Basement membrane

noncellular layer in an epithelial cell that anchors the overlying epithelial tissues

-striated
-involuntary
-has capacity to generate and conduct electrical impulses
-branched

Carotid triangle

area of anterior triangle of the neck that contains the carotid artery and internal jugular vein

-cell wall
-selectively permeable layer surrounding insides of cell
-controls movement of substances in and out of cell

organelles that are essential in cell division

structures containing DNA within cell's nucleus
-Humans have 23 pairs

hair-like microtubule projections on the surface of a cell that can move materials over the cell surface

Columnar epithelium

hollow portion of the skull

shrinkage of a cell that results when too much water leaves a cell thru osmosis

Cuboidal epithelium

clear liquid portion of cytoplasm

DendriteDiffusion

process where molecules move from area of higher concentration to area of lower concentration

uptake of material thru cell membrane by membrane-bound droplet or vesicle formed within cell's cytoplasm

Endoplasmic reticulum

site of protein and lipid synthesis

Extracellular fluid (ECF)

-fluid outside of cell
-most of body's supply of sodium is here
-accounts for 15% of body weight

bony structures that attach the limbs to the body

Golgi apparatus

-set of membranes in cytoplasm
-formation of sugars and complex proteins

excessive potassium in blood

excessive sodium (greater than 145mEq/L)

Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic nonketonic coma (HHNC)

-diabetic emergency that occurs from relative insulin deficiency
-hyperglycemia, hyperosmolarity, absence of significant ketosis

low potassium in blood

serum sodium level less than 135 mEq/L

Intracellular fluid

-fluid inside cell where more of potassium is contained
-45% of total body weight

process of disintegration of breakdown of cells that occurs when excess water enters the cell through osmosis

membrane bound vesicles that contain variety of enzymes functioning as cell's digestive system

space between lungs that contains heart, trachea, mainstream bronchi, part of esophagus, and large blood vessels

-connective and supporting tissues of nervous tissue
-one of two types of neural tissue
-support, protect, defend, and aid in repair of neural tissue
-also regulate composition of nervous system interstitial fluid

round, dense structures that contain RNA and synthesize proteins

movement of solvent, such as water, from an area of low solute concentration to one of high concentration

Osmotic pressure

measure of the tendency of water to move by osmosis across a membrane

Parietal portion

portion of the serous membrane that lines the walls of the trunk cavities

Pericardial cavity

region around the heart

Pericardial effusion

abnormal accumulation of fluid within pericrdial sac

Pericardial sac

lubricated potential space btwn layers of pericardium

pericardial tamponade

condition that occurs as fluid accumulates around the heart, which restrict the heart's stroke volume

membrane surrounding the heart

inflammation of peritoneum

protective membrane that lines the abdominal and pelvic cavities

when cell ingests extracellular fluid and its contents

serous membranes covering lunds and lining of thoracic cavity

space btwn visceral and parietal pleura

Pleural effusion

excessive accumulation of fluid within pleural space

small amount of lubricating fluid that fills pleural space

abnormal accumulation of air within pleural space

Pseudostratified epithelium

single layer of epithelial cells of varying heights that attach to basement membrane (do not reach free surface)

Retroperitoneal space

area located posterior to parietal peritoneum that contains kidneys, pancreas, reproductive organs, duodenum, and major blood vessels

organelles that contain RNA and protein

Serous membranes

membranes that line body cavities that lack openings to outside

Skeletal muscle

-voluntary muscle
-striated
-light and dark striations

-nonstriated
-involuntary
-found in vessel walls, glands, and GI tract
-visceral and multiunit (two types)

Sodium-potassium exchange pump

mechanism that uses active transport to move sodium out and potassium in

microtubules radiating from centrioles

Squamous epithelium

-Flat sheets of epithelial cells

Stratified epithelium

multiple layers of cells

Transitional epithelium

=tissues that changes in appearance due to tension
-lines urinary bladder, ureters, and superior urethra

types of joints

amphiarthrosis, diarthrosis, synarthrosis

Two types of bone

(1) compact
-solid
(2) Cancellous
-trabecular bone

Two parts that make up the skeleton

-axial
-appendicular

includes skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, thoracic cage

How many bones make up the skull?

include maxillae, zygomatic bones, nasal bones, vomer bone, inferior nasal conchae, lacrimal bones, palatine bones, and mandible

How many pairs of ribs?

-12 pairs of ribs
-2 floating pairs of ribs

Parts of sternum

-body, manubrium, xiphoid process

Appendicular skeleton

-contains upper and lower limb bones and bones anchoring limbs to ______skeleton
-includes shoulder girdle (clavicle and scapula), upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs

bone in foot that articulates with tibia and fibula to form ankle joint

-bone that is inferior and lateral to the talus
-provides support for standing

depression on lateral pelvis that articulates with femoral head

Acromioclavicular joint

point at which the clavicle attaches to the acromion process

Acromioclavicular separation

injury caused by distraction of the clavicle away from the acromion process of the scapula

Anulus fibrosis

ring of fibrous or fibrocartilaginous tissue that is part of the intervertebral disk

Appositional growth

formation of new bone on the surface of a bone

C1 and supports head

C2; allows head to turn

-bruising over mastoid process
-usually due to basilar fracture

grinding together of upper and lower teeth

small fluid-filled sacs located between a tendon and a bone to help lubricate two surfaces that are rubbing together

zone of repair in which a mass of exudates and connective tissues forms around a break in a bone... heals

Carpal tunnel syndrom

caused by compression of median nerve

-Scaphoid
-Lunate
-Triquetrum
-Pisiform
-Trapezium
-Trapezoid
-Capitate
-Hamate

Central disk herniation

-most serious disk rupture that occurs when nuclear material protrudes straight back into spinal canal
-potential to cause neurological injury

cell that produce cartilage

Compression fracture

fracture of vertebral body associated with collapse of the body

Costochondritis

inflammation of costal cartilage (Attaching ribs to sternum)

Cribriform plate

bones in skull cavity that are perforated with foramina for the passage of olfactory nerve filaments from nasal cavity

bony ridge where meninges are attache

shaft of long bone

layer that lines inner surfaces of bone

-inflammation of muscles of elbow joint
-aka. tennis elbow

cells that secrete proteins and collagen to form connective tissue between broken bone ends and at other sites of injury throughout the body

part of scapula that forms socket for shoulder joint

tear in anulus fibrosus that results in leakage of nucleus pulposus, most commonly against exiting nerve roots

mineral compound containing calcium and phosphate that make up bone

inward curvature of lumbar spine

-dura mater
-arachnoid
-pia mater

-thee small bones in middle ear; include malleus, incus, and stapes
-transmit vibrations to the cochlear duct at the oval window

osteogenesis imperfecta

a genetic bone disease that results in fragile bones

an abnormal softening of bones because of loss of calcium

inflammation of the bone and muscle caused by infection

units within a compact bone in which blood vessels are located; also called haversian system

reduction in quantity of bony tissue

a disease caused by vitamin D deficiency

sideways curvature of the spine

-involuntary contraction of the mouth resulting in clenched teeth
-occurs during seizures and head injuries

-threadlike structures that extend from one end of the muscle fiber to the other
-located within individual muscle cells

group of muscle fibers that are bundles with connective tissue

What are important components of contraction of muscles?

calcium and ATP

Two types of smooth muscle

-visceral
-multiunit

muscles that work together to accomplish a particular movement

muscles that work in opposition to one another

chemical neurotransmitter that serves as a mediator in bother sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

Acetylcholinesterase

enzyme that causes muscle relaxation by helping to break down acetylcholine

Achilles tendon

strong tendon that joins the muscles in the posterior leg to the calcaneus

component that makes up most of thin filaments of the myofibrils

-prime mover
-muscle that contracts to provide mose of a desired movement

broad sheet of fibers that may attach to bones or coverings of other muscles

condition caused by damage to the facial nerve resulting in an inability to move facial muscles on the affected side

an intracellular protein to which calcium binds, resulting in muscle contraction

Compartment syndrome

-accumulation of blood or fluid in fascial compartment resulting in compression of blood vessels and tissue
-usually result of trauma
-can cause death of muscle and loss of limb

Creatine phosphate

an organic compound in muscle tissue that can store and provide energy for muscle contraction

layer of fibrous connective tissue outside the epimysium that separates the individual muscles and individual muscle groups

conduction areas between cells (e.g., in visceral smooth muscle) that interconnect individual muscle cells

Intercalated disks

branching fibers in cardiac muscle that allow action potentials to pass from cell to cell

Intrinsic automaticity

ability of a muscle to generate its own electrical activity

end produce of the breakdown of glucose that accumulates when metabolism proceeds in the absence of oxygen

motor end plate

flattened end of a motor neuron that transmits neural impulses to a muscle

Multiunit smooth muscle

-one of two types of smooth muscle
-formed into sheets of muscle (as in the walls of blood vessels), small bundles of muscles (as in the iris of the eye), or single cells (as in the capsule of the spleen)

the amount of oxygen that liver cells need to convert lactic acid into glucose, as well as the amount needed by muscle cells to restore adenosine triphosphate and creatine phosphate levels

thin transparent sheath surrounding striated muscle fiber

repeating patterns of striation units that appear along each skeletal muscle fiber

space between neurons

test used to evaluate the integrity of the achilles tendon for possible rupture

actin-binding protein that regulates muscle contraction and other actin related mechanical function of the body

a regulatory protein in the actin filaments of skeletal and cardiac muscle that attaches to tropomyosin

Visceral smooth muscle

sheets of muscle that are found in the digestive, reproductive, and urinary tracts

supination of the forearm against resistance to evaluate whether a pt has bicipital tendinitis

primary functions of respiratory system

-intake of oxygen
-removal of carbon dioxide
-exchange of gases and ventilation

-enters at nasopharynx or oropharynx
-moves to trachea
-bronchi
-bronchioles
-alveoli in lungs

-mouth
-nasopharynx
-oropharynx

Nasopharynx and oropharynx (start to end point)

-Naso extends from the internal nares to the uvula
-Oro extends from the uvula to the epiglottis

-starts at larynx
-includes glottis, vestibular folds, vocal cords, bronchi, and bronchioles

external respiration

gas exchange between air in the lungs and the blood

Internal respiration

gas exchange between blood and the cells

Where do lungs receive blood from?

-right ventricle via pulmonary arteries
-bronchial arteries (which branch from thoracic aorta)

Respiratory area of the brain

-brainstem, pons, medulla oblongata
-stimulated by CO2 in blood (and lesser effect of O2 levels in blood)

disease of the lungs caused by inhalation of asbestos particles

chronic inflammatory lower airway condition resulting in intermittent wheezing and excess mucus production

Bicarbonate ions

-ions related to carbonic acid
-formed from carbon dioxide transport mechanisms

Black lung disease

disease of the lung caused by consistent inhalation of coal dust

Bronchial veins

veins that return deoxygenated blood to the heart from the lungs

Carbaminohemoglobin

bonding of carbon dioxide with hemoglobin

Carbonic anhydrase

an enzyme in rbcs that speeds the reaction of carbon dioxide and water, resulting in carbonic acid

ridgelike projection of tracheal cartilage located where the trachea bifurcates into the right and left mainstem bronchi

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

progressive and irreversible disease of airway marked by decreased inspiratory and expiratory capacity of the lungs

-infiltration of any tissue by air or gas
-COPD (disease) characterized by distention of the alveoli and destructive changes in the lung parenchyma

Functional residual capacity

expiratory reserve volume plus residual volume

vocal cords and the openings between them

-point of entry for the bronchi, vessels, and nerves into each lung
-also an indented region of a lymph node where blood vessels and nerves are attached

small portion of the left lung that is the equivalent of the middle lobe in the right lung

Partial pressure of carbon dioxide

measurement of percentage of carbon dioxide in blood

Primary respiratory acidosis

a decrease in blood pH secondary to insufficient exhalation of CO2

Primary respiratory alkalosis

an increase in the blood pH secondary to excessive exhalation of CO2

mixture of lipids and proteins synthesized to reduce the tendency of alveolar collapse and to ease alveolar inflation

a set of bony convulsions formed by the conchae ni the nasopharynx that help to maintain smooth airflow

Vestibular folds

superior portion of the vocal cords, also called the false vocal cords

Heart valves (x4)

-tricuspid
-mitral
-pulmonic
-aortic

Parts of the intrinsic conduction system of the heart

-sinoatrial node
-atrioventricular node
-bundle of His
-bundle branches
-Purkinje fibers

Regulation of heart function involves (x3)

(1) chronotropic effect
-control of heart rate
(2) dromotropic effect
-conductivity
(3) inotropic
-strength of contractions

-PR
-QRS (ventricular depolarization)
-ST
-T (ventricular repolarization)

amount of blood pumped through the circulatory system in one minute

Coronary arteries

-supply heart with blood
-arise from aorta

Pulmonary circulation

carried blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs and back to the left side of the heart

Systemic arterial circulation

carries oxygenated blood from the heart through the AV valve, into the aorta, and out to the body

Circulation to the head and neck involve...

-brachiocephalic artery
-left common carotid artery
-left subclavian atery

Circulation to the upper extremities involves...

-subclavian artery
-vertebral artery
-axillary artery
-brachial, ulnar, and radial arteries

Major abdominal arteries

-celiac trunk
-superior mesenteric artery
-inferior mesenteric artery

Circulation to the pelvis and lower extremities involve...

-aorta
-two common iliac arteries
-internal and external iliac arteries
-femoral arteries
-popliteal arteries
-tibial arteries
-dorsalis pedis arteries

Hepatic portal system

specialized part of venous system that drains blood from the liver, stomach, intestines, and spleen

-RBC
-hemoglobin
-contain antigens on surface

-WBCs
-fight infection by production of antibodies or by directly attacking invaders

process by which clots are formed and bleeding is stopped

Absolute refractory period

early phase of repolarization in which cell contains such a large concentration of ions that it cannot be stimulated to depolarize

pressure in the aorta against which the left ventricle must pump blood

leukocytes that lack granules

smallest of plasma proteins that make up about 60% of these proteins by weight

stimulation of alpha receptors that results in vasoconstriction

low hemoglobin erythrocyte level

substances of molecules that, when taken into the body, stimulate immune system

state in which cardiac cells are at rest, waiting for the generation of spontaneous impulse from within

lymphocytes that produce and secrete antibodies that bind to and destroy foreign antigens

part of brain locater dorsal to the pons and is responsible for coordination and balance

WBCs that work to produce chemical mediators during an immune response and make up approximately 1% of leukocytes

stimulation fo beta receptors that results in increased inotropic, dromotropic, and chronotropic states

waste product of RBC destruction that undergoes further metabolism in the liver

Chordae tendineae

thin bands of fibrous tissue that attach to the valves in the heart and prevent them from inverting/prolapsing

abnormal whooshing sound indicating turbulent blood flood within a narrowed blood vessel; usually heard in carotid arteries

portion of electrical conduction system in interventricular septum that conducts the depolarizing impulse from the AV junction to the right and left bundle branches

Circle of Willis

interconnection of the anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral arteries and the anterior communicating artery, which forms an important source of collateral circulation to the brain

Erythroblastosis fetalis

a serious condition that results when a pregnant woman's blood type is incompatible with the fetus' blood type and antibodies from the mother enter the fetal circulation adn destroy fetus' RBCs

process of making RBCs

white insoluble protein formed from fibrinogen in the clotting process

plasma protein that is important for blood coagulation

process whereby leukocytes leave blood vessels and move toward tissue where they are needed most

Ejection fraction

percentage of blood that leaves the heart each time it contracts

percentage of blood volume made up by RBCs

a piece of clot that travels from one part of the body to another

process of blood cell production in bone marrow (aka. hemopoiesis)

substance found in large amounts in basophils that inhibits blood clotting

-WBCs with a major role in allergic reactions and bronchoconstriction during an asthma attack
-make up 1-3% of leukocytes

infection of a heart valve

-WBCs that are one of three types of granulocytes
-multi-lobed nuclei
-destroy bacteria, antigen-antibody complexes, and foreign matter

Inotropic effect

effect on contractility of muscle tissue

first wave in ECG complex, representing depolarization of ventricles

-cells to which antibodies attach
-formed in response to allergens
-when allergens on the surface of this, they release potent inflammatory mediators resulting in allergic symptoms or potentially anaphylaxis

Pericardiocentesis

lifesaving procedure to correct a cardiac tamponade, in which a needle is inserted into the pericardial sac to remove excess fluid from the heart

Mesenteric angina

pain caused by partial occlusion of the mesenteric artery from atherosclerosis

valve in heart that separates left atrium from the left ventricle

clot-dissolving enzyme

-dominant pacemaker of the heart
-located in the junction of the superior vena cava and right atrium

-mass of nerve fibers at the end of the medulla oblongata
-portion of brainstem that lies below midbrain
-affect sleep adn respiraton

part of hepatic portal system in which blood collects within the liver and the liver cells extract nutrients from the blood, filter the blood, and metabolize various drugs

-period between atrial depolarization and the onset of ventricular depolarization
-signifies the time required for atrial depolarization and passage of the excitation impulse thru the AV junction

Superior vena cava

-one of the two largest veins in the body
-carried blood from upper extremities, head, neck, and chest into the heart

Raynaud phenomenon

spasms that develop in digital arteries, particularly following emotional stress or cold exposure, resulting in white and cool fingertips

produced byT cells ventricular depolarization

represents ventricular repolarization

-longest vein in body
-drains leg, thigh, and dorsum of the foot

Tricuspid valve

heart valve that separates right atrium from right ventricle

-middle and thickest layer of tissue of a blood vessel wall
-composed of elastic tissue and smooth muscle cells that allow the vessel to expand or contract in response to changes in bp and tissue demand

Lymphatic system

-related to cardiovascular system
-transports excess tissue fluid to bloodstream
-absorbs fats and helps to defend against disease-causing agents
-primary organs are thymus and spleen, along with lymph nodes

;Lymphatic vessels

-carry fluid away from tissues
-prevent tissues from becoming edematous by absorbing excess fluid and returning it to central venous circulation

Three lymphatic organs comprising the tonsils

-palatine
-pharyngeal
-lingual tonsils

Two types of lymph tissue

red and white pulp

Most common chemicals in body that promote inflammation (lymphatic system)

-histamines
-kinin
-complement
-prostaglandins
-leukotrienes
-pyrogens
-interferon

Two types of specific immunity

(1) cellular immune response
-achieved by actions of T lymphocytes or T cells
(2) humoral immune response

-gamma globulin proteins called immunoglobulins
-include: IgM, IgA, IgE, IgD, IgG

-cells that aid WBCs in carrying out cell-mediated immune functions
-maturation of B cells into plasma cells and memory B cells
-activation of cytotoxic T cells and macrophages

B lymphocytes (B cells)

lymphocytes that exist in the blood and are abundant in the lymph nodes, bone marrow, intestinal lining, and spleen

protein found on surface of helper T cells that is adversely affected by exposure to HIV

inflammation of a lymph node caused by infection

Lymphadenopathy

any swelling of the lymph nodes, with or without pain

infection that spreads beyond the local area into a lymphatic vessel causing red streaks to run from the infected area proximally

Primary immune response

the activation of B or T cells after they first encounter the antigens for which they are specialized to react

Secondary immune response

appearance of concentrations of antibodies in the blood plasma, usually 5-10 days after exposure to antigens

How many cranial nerves?

Major regions of adult brain (x4)

-cerebrum
-diencephalon
-cerebellum
-brainstem

Cholinergic neuron

neuron that secretes acetylcholine

Adrenergic neuron

neuron that secretes norepinephrine

-made up by portions of cerebrum and diencephalon
-influences mood, emotions, motivation, and sensations of pain and pleasure

-cranial nerve (VI)
-lateral movement of eyeball

Accessory nerve

-Cranial nerve (XI)
-provides motor innervation to the muscles of the soft palate and the pharynx and to the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles

Brachial plexus

-C5 to T1
-musculocutaneous, radial, ulnar, median

nerve roots that extend from the spinal cord at the level of the second lumbar vertebra

Cerebellar peduncles

one of three bands of nerve fibers through which the cerebellum communicates with other regions of the central nervous system

Anterior spinothalamic tracts

ascending fiber tracts that carry info to the brain about light touch, pressure, and tickling/itching sensations

Cerebral cortex

-largest part of brain
-controls higher thought processes
-also called cerebrum

Ascending reticular activating system

several structures located throughout the brainstem that are responsible for maintenance of consciousness

-specialized cells within hollow areas in the ventricles of the brain
-produce cerebrospinal fluid

-located in cerebrum, diencephalon, and midbrain
-play an important role in coordination of motor movements

-common cardiac drug
-blocks beta effects, causing decrease in workload of heart by reducing speed of contraction and bp

agent that blocks transmission of neural motor impulses at neuromuscular junction

-most inferior portion of diencephalon
-responsible for control of hr, digestion, sexual development, temp regulation, emotion, hunger, thirst, and regulation of sleep cycle
-stimulates secretion of growth hormone

-part of brain between brainstem and cerebrum
-includes thalamus and hypothalamus

Longitudinal fissye

separates left and right hemispheres of cerebrum

-part of diencephalon
-emotions, circadian rhythms, and connecting limbic system with other parts of brain

-cranial nerve (VII)
-supplies motor activity to all muscles of facial expression, the sense of taste to the anterior 2/3 of the tongue, and cutaneous sensation to the external ear, tongue, and palate

-inferior portion of midbrain that serves as conduction pathway for afferent and efferent nerves
-inner portion of adrenal glands
-produces epinephrine and norepinephrine

-cranial nerve (II)
-transmits visual information to the brain
-only cranial nerve considered to be part of CNS

-responsible for reception and evaluation of most sensory info, except smell hearing, and vision

Peripheral nervous system

-31 pairs of spinal nerves and 11 of 12 pairs of cranial nerves
-sensory, motor, and connecting nerves

Nodes of ranvier

regions between individual schwann cells in myelinated neurons, between which action potentials jump

Obturator nerve

-nerve emanating from lumbosacral plexus
-innervate muscles that adduct the thigh and rotate it medially

Oculomotor nerve

-cranial nerve (III)
-motion of eyeballs and upper lid

info about body's position of its parts

Olfactory nerve

-Cranial nerve (I)
-transmits info on smell

nervous tissue that helps form the myelin sheath around certain neurons

plays role in hearing and memory

-part of diencephalon
-processes most sensory input and influences mood and general body movement (especially associated with fear or rage)

Trigeminal nerve

-Cranial nerve (V)
-supplies sensation to scalp, forehead, face, and lower jaw
-innervates muscles of mastication, throat, and inner ear

-cranial nerve (X)
-provides motor function to soft palate, pharynx, and larynx
-carries taste bud ﬁbers from the posterior tongue, sensory ﬁbers from the inferior pharynx, larynx, thoracic, and abdominal organs, and parasympathetic ﬁbers to thoracic and abdominal organs.

Substantia nigra

layer of gray matter located in midbrain

part of diencephalon involved in controlling motor functions

Vestibulocochlear nerve

-cranial nerve (VIII) that passes thru internal auditory meatus
-hearing and balance

12 Cranial nerves

-I Olfactory (Smell)
-II Optic (Sight)
-III Oculomotor (Moves eyelid and eyeball and adjusts the pupil and lens of the eye)
-IV Trochlear (Moves eyeballs)
-V Trigeminal (Facial muscles incl. chewing; Facial sensations)
-VI Abducens (Moves eyeballs)
-VII Facial (Taste, tears, saliva, facial expressions)
-VIII Vestibulocochlear (Auditory)
-IX Glossopharyngeal (Swallowing, saliva, taste)
-X Vagus (Control of PNS e.g. smooth muscles of GI tract)
-XI Accessory (Moving head & shoulders, swallowing)
-XII Hypoglossal (Tongue muscles - speech & swallowing)

-outer layer of skin made up of stratified squamous epithelium
-nerve vessels but no nerve endings
-composed of five layers (stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum germinativum)

Stratum corneum

-outer layer of epidermis
-dead cells

Stratum germinaticum

innermost layer of epidermis

Stratum granulosum

-layer of epidermis that sits between stratum lucidum and stratum spinosum
-composed of flattened cells that contain granules of keratohyalin

Four layers of alimentary canal

-mucosa
-submucosa
-adventitia (muscle)
-serosa (outer lining of bowel)

Right upper quadrant contains

-liver
-gallbladder
-part of large intestine
-right kidney

Left upper quadrant contains

-stomach
-spleen
-pancreas
-part of large intestine
-left kidney

Right lower quadrant contains

-appendix
-part of large intestine
-right ovary
-right ureter
-part of uterus
-urinary bladder

Left lower quadrant contains

-part of large intestine
-left ovary
-left ureter
-part of uterus
-urinary bladder

thick folds of the stomach wall

What does the lining of the inner stomach mucosa contain?

-contains gastric pits with parietal, chief, and endocrine cells

-highly vascular organ
-removal of old blood cells and fighting infection

-elongated organ
-manufacture of digestive enzymes and the hormones insulin and glucagon

Absorptive cells

cells that produce digestive enzymes and absorb digested food

muscular layer of wall of alimentary canal

Alimentary canal is made up by...

mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus

Ampulla of Vater

opening in the duodenum into which the common bile duct and the pancreatic duct drain

Carboxypeptidase

pancreatic enzyme that digests proteins

duodenojejunal flexure

sharp bend in the small intestine between the duodenum and jejunum

Endocrine cells

cells in stomach mucosa that produce regulatory hormones

cells in stomach mucosa that produce pepsinogen (important enzyme in digestion of food)

Esophageal hiatus

opening in diaphragm through which the esophagus passes

-symptoms from cholelithiasis
-aka gallbladder attack

Cholecystokinin

-hormone produces in intestine
-stimulates production of pancreatic secretions
-gallbladder contractions
-inhibits gastric motility

presence of gallstones

gas within colon

pancreatic enzyme that digests proteins

-tubular glands located in colon
-contain mucus-producing goblet cells

-hormone produced by endocrine cells of stomach
-increases stomach secretions and rate of gastric emptying

cells that produce a protective mucous lining

recesses in colon caused by contraction of the teniae coli

pancreatic enzymes that break down fat

intermittent patches of lymph nodes located in the ileum

Plicae circulates

circular folds that run perpendicular to digestive tract and increase surface area for absorption

anatomic landmark in RLQ that represents the location of pain associated with appendicitis

-hormone produced by duodenum
-inhibits gastric secretion and stimulates production of alkaline pancreatic secretions

pancreatic enzyme that aids in digestion of protein

-group of hormone-like fatty acids produced in many body tissues
-act on target organs to produce effects such as uterine contraction, regulation of bp, smooth muscle contraction, pain, and imflammation

-act by binding to receptors
-corticosteroids and thyroid hormones bind to receptors located within cells
-all other hormones bind to receptors located on surface of cells

Pituitary gland

-master gland; located as base of brain
-secretes hormones that regulate basically F-ing everything
-regulate function of many glands in body
-is regulatED by the hypothalamus
-posterior portion is directly connected to and continuous with the brain (called neurohypophysis... produces neurohormones)

Neurohypophysis

=posterior portion of the pituitary gland that produces hormones called neurohormones
-antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

-produced by neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary)
-constricts blood vessels and raises bp
-targets kidneys and promotes retention of water (reduces urine output)
-vasopressin

-neurohormone produced by neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary)
-contraction and lactation

Anterior pituitary

-aka. adenohypophysis
-hormones produced are not neurohormones because this portion is not considered part of CNS

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

-hormone that targets adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol
-essential for development of cortex of adrenal gland and its secretion of corticosteroids
-stimulated by stress, trauma, major surgery, fever, etc.

Two major hormones produced by the thyroid gland

-triiodothyronine (T3)
-tetraiodothyronine (T4)
-hormones produced in response to stimulation from anterior pituitary by thyroid-stimulating hormone

Parathyroid glands

-located on posterior thyroid gland surface
-produce parathyroid hormone (maintains calcium in blood and normal neuromuscular function)

Three major female hormones

-estrogen
-progesterone
-human chorionic gonadotropin

secretes melatonin

-disorder caused by overproduction of growth hormone by pit. gland
-enlargement of flat bones
-aka. gigantism

Addisonian crisis

acute adrenocortical insufficiency

-one of two main hormones that adjust final composition of urine
-increases rate of active reabsorption of sodium and chloride ions into blood
-decreases reabsorption of potassium

-cells located in inlet of Langerhans
-secrete glucagon

-cells located in islets of Langerhans
-secrete insulin

-hormone produced by thyroid
-regulates calcium levels in body

-condition resulting in excess secretion of aldosterone
-commonly caused by benign tumour

-corticosteroid secreted by adrenal cortex
-stress hormone

protrusion of eyes

Follicle stimulating hormone

-hormone that regulates eggs, sperm, and reproductive hormones
-released from pituitary gland
-helps stimulate oocyte to undergo meiosis

-hormone produced by pancreas
-controls metabolism and blood glucose level
-stimulates breakdown of glycogen to glucose

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone

-hormone released by hypothalamus
-influences release of luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone

Hyperparathyroidism

-condition resulting in loss of calcium
-caused by excess secretion of parathyroid hormones

Islets of Langerhans

special group of cells in pancreas where insulin and glucagon are produced

painful muscle spasms

Three divisions of the adrenal cortex

-zona fasciculata (corticosteroids)
-zona glomerulosa (mineralocorticoids)
-zona reticularis (some weak male sex hormones or androgens)

What structure of the kidney supplies blood to the glomerulus?

the afferent arteriole

-form of kinin that plays role in bp maintenance
-causes vasoconstriction and sympathetic activation by stimulating adrenal gland to increase aldosterone

Detrusor muscle

-muscle surrounding neck of bladder to form internal urethral sphincter
-functions in micturition reflex

Diabetes insipidus

-condition caused by pituitary dysfunction
-associated with large production of dilute urine

Distal convoluted tubule

-part of nephron
-empties urine into collection duct then carries it to the calyces

Efferent arteriole

-structure of kidney that drains blood from glomerulus

Glomerular capsule

-sac-like structure that surrounds the glomerulus
-receives filtered fliud

Renal corpuscle

initial blood-filtering component of nephron

-inner portion of each kidney
-made of conical renal pyramids
-has striations

Juxtaglomerular cells

-cells located in afferent arterioles of glomerulus
-play part in regulating volume statue of body

U-shaped portion of renal tubule that extends from the proximal to the distal convoluted tubule

portion of nephron containing tubular fluid filtered throguh glomerulus

-structural and functional units of kidney that form urine
-composed of glomerulus, glomerular capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of henle, distal convoluted tubule

hormone produced by cells in juxtaglomerular apparatus when bp is low

Renin-angiotensin system

system located in kidney that helps regulate fluid balance and bp

Tubular reabsorpion

process that moves substances from the tubular fluid into the blood within the peritubular capillary

-yellow fluid that carries blood cells and nutrients
-transports cellular waste material to organs of excretion
-makes up 55% of total blood volume

-thick-walled hollow tubes that carry urine from kidneys to bladder

Proximal convoluted tubule

-part of nephron
-include glomerular capsule

-series of peritubular capillaries that surround loop of Henle
-water moves here after passing through descending and ascending limbs of loop of Henle

-variant form of a gene
-can be identical or slightly different in DNA sequence

-procedure of extracting amniotic fluid from the uterus using a needle and ultrasound or CT scan

chromosomes that do not carry genes that determine sex

Ejaculatory duct

-structure formed by vasa deferentia and seminal vesicle
-passes through prostate gland to empty into the urethra

Bulbourethral glands

-glands that lie inferior to the prostate gland
-secrete a lubricating fluid that prepares the penis for sexual intercourse

inner layer of uterine wall

-tightly coiled tubes connected to ducts within a testis
-become vas deferens

Corpus cavernosus

erectile tissue found in clitoris and penis

opening between two atria that is present in fetus but closs shortly after birth

sex cell (sperm and ovaries)

Cremaster muscle

muscle that contracts and pulls the testicles close to the body during cold weather

Layer of cutaneous muscle within the scrotum that contracts during cold weather and causes the skin to become firm and wrinkled

process of fetal development following fertilization

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

-hormone released from hypothalamus
-stimulates uterine lining during menstrual cycle

Graafian follicle

mature or developed ovum

pathway by which spermatozoa leave testes

thick muscular middle layer of uterine all

-precursors to a mature egg
-formed in ovaries

process of egg cell formation which begins at puberty

opening in the infundibulum formed by fallopian tubes

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

hormone that stimulates the corpus luteum to produce progesterone during the first 8 weeks of gestation

space formed in the peritoneum by the distal end of the fallopian tubes

serous membrane coating that makes up the outside layer of the uterine wall

area between the urethral opening and the anus

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

-hormone released from pituitary gland
-released in monthly intervals that help stimulate one oocyte to undergo meiosis (stimulates ovulation)

hormone released from ovaries that stimulates uterine lining during menstrual cycle

male sex gland that secretes alkaline viscous ejaculatory fluid

1st menstrual period

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA)

blood test used in diagnosis of prostate cancer

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

-nucleic acid made from DNA in the nucleus of the cell
-move to the cytoplasm where it serves as a template for production of proteins

Seminal vesicles

storage sacs for sperm and seminal fluid which empty into the urethra at the prostate

Seminiferous tubules

-highly coiled structures inside each lobule of a testis
-form network of channels, then ducts, which join the epididymis

spermatic duct of the testicles

Vestibular gland

-one of two glands that lie on each side of the vaginal opening
-secretes mucus into the vestibule to moisten and lubricate vagina for insertion of penis

cord composed of testicular artery, venous plexus, lymph vessels, connective tissue, and cremaster muscle

Spermatogenesis

process by which sperm cells are formed

-fertilized egg
-23 chromosomes from each parent

outer group of cells in a zygote that develop to become the placents

Where does the optic nerve enter the globe?

enters the globe posteriorly through the optic foramen

-made up of 10 layers of nervous tissue
-receives light impulses that generate nerve signals that are conducted to the brain through the optic nerve

Five primary taste types

-sweetness
-sourness
-saltiness
-bitterness
-umami

Perception of sound

-Sound waves enter the ear through the auricle and travel through external auditory canal to the tympanic membrane
-at the tympanic membrane, vibration against the membrane sets up vibrations in the ossicles
-vibrations of the ossicles are transmitted to the cochlear duct at the oval window
-this causes fluid within the cochlea to vibrate
-these vibrations stimulate hairs at the organ of Corti, which send nerve impulses to the brain via the auditory nerve

Sensation of balance

-consists of static equilibrium and dynamic equilibrium

Anterior chamber (eye)

area between the lens and the cornea that is filled with aqueous humour

clear, watery fluid behind the eye (anterior chamber of the globe)

-large outside portion of the ear through which sound waves enter the ear
-aka. Pinna

shell-shaped structure within the inner ear that contains the organ of Corti

canal within the cochlea that receives vibrations from the ossicles

a thin, transparent membrane that covers the sclera and internal surfaces of the eyelids

transparent anterior portion of the eye that overlies the iris and pupil

small elevation in each ear canal

Crista ampullaris

sensory organ in a semicircular canal that aids with dynamic equillibrium

cap of gelatinous tissue in the ear that is involved in the sensation of balance and movement

-cavity leading from the exterior atmosphere to the tympanum
-aka. external auditory canal

-thin membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear
-transmits vibrations to the ossicles
-aka. tympanic membrane

fluid in the membranous labyrinth of the ear

External auditory canal

-area in which sound waves are received from the auricle before they travel to the eardrum
-aka. ear canal

-contains pinna, ear canal, and exterior portion of the tympanic membrane j

-organ that is the primary receptor for sound
-made up of thousands of cilia

small calcium carbonate stones with gelatinous protein that aid in sensation of motion

any of several conditions that result in excess skin sensitivity, especially to touch or cold

Otolithic membrane

membrane within the inner ear that contains otolith and aids in sensation of motion

oval opening between the middle ear and the vestible

-large outside portion of the ear through which soundwaves enter the ear
-aka the auricle

composed of cochlea and semicircular canals

-the sphincter muscle and surrounding tissue behind the cornea
-dilate and constrict the pupil
-regulate the amount of light that enters the eye
-pigment in this tissue gives eye its colour

Punctum lacrimale

small opening in the corner of the eye through which tears drain from the lacrimal ducts

circular opening in the center of the eye through which light passes to the lens

white part of the eye

specialized patches of tissue within the utricle and saccule that aid in the sensation of motion

transparent part of the eye through which images are focused on the retina

hair-like projections of the gustatory cells of the taste buds

Olfactory bulbs

-structures in the forebrain that are needed to perceive odors
-cranial nerve for smell

Olfactory cortex

area in the brain that receives odor impulses and perceives them as smell

an enlarged portion of the labyrinth of the inner ear that contains a specialized patch of tissues that aids int he sensation of position and motion

consists of inner portion of the tympanic membrane and the ossicles

area in the brain where signals from the optic nerve are converted into visual images

Vitreous humour

a jelly-like substance found in the posterior compartment of the eye between the lens and the retina

carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins

sum of all chemical processes that take place in the body, resulting in storage or expenditure of energy

-build up of energy reservoirs and molecules in the body
-constructive component of metabolism
-synthesis of larger molecules from smaller ones

-breakdown of energy in the body
-destructive component of metabolism
-breakdown of larger molecules to smaller ones

Thermoregulation

-under primary control of hypothalamus
-temperature regulation

normal bodily means of heat dissipation or loss

Body water content of average adult

50-70% of total body weight

Four methods of heat dissipation from body

-radiation
-conduction
-convection
-evaporation

Aerobic metabolism

-biochemical process that occurs in the presence of oxygen and results in production of ATP
-aka. cellular respiration

Anaerobic metabolism

-alternate form of metabolism that occurs when oxygen levels are low and less energy is produced than during aerobic respiration
-lactic acid is produced as a waste product

Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

rate at which nutrients are consumed by body at rest

the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1 degree C

Cellular respiraton

-biochemical process resulting in production of energy in the form of ATP
-also called etabolism

Extracellular fluid

-fluid found outside of cell membrane
-contains most of supply of sodium
-15% of body weight

long polymer from which glucose is converted in the liver

process that involves a series of enzymatically catalyzed reactions in which glucose is broken down to make lactic or pyruvic acid

splitting of a molecule by adding water

target of enzyme action

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