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Psychology Semester Exam Review

Terms in this set (126)

psychoanalysis
the perspective developed by Freud, which assumes that emotional problems are due to anxiety resulting from unresolved conflicts that reside in the unconscious and treats these problems using the therapeutic technique of psychoanalysis
behaviorism
the approach to psychology that focuses on describing and measuring only what is observable, either directly or through assessment instruments
humanism
the psychological perspective that emphasizes positive human values and people's inherent tendency toward personal growth; we should understand people as more than just the sum of their parts; people make cognitive choices about their behavior
evolutionary
the psychological perspective that seeks to explain and predict behaviors by analyzing how the human brain developed over time and how that evolutionary history affects brain functions and behaviors today
Wundt
the first person to establish psychology as a separate field
Hawthorne effect
the tendency for people to behave differently when they know they are being studied
case study
intense analysis of one individual; person is usually interesting or unique
naturalistic observation
desribe behavior in its typical or natural context; define variable and don't change the situation
surveys
must carefully weigh options, need a representative sample, info may or may not be accurate
correlational
tries to determine the strength of a relationship between two variables; this type of study does not determine causality
Ex Post Facto
when you want to know the differences among groups of participants, pick group who differs naturally and see if the variables affect anything
afferent
sensory neurons that carry messages TO spinal cord and brain
efferent
motor neurons that carry messages FROM the spinal cord and brain
neuron
an individual nerve cell; allow signals to flow to the brain and spinal cord, allow signals to flow from the brain and spinal cord
amygdala
part of the limbic system; influences emotions such as aggression, fear, and self-protective behaviors; two almond-shaped neural clusters
limbic system
an interconnected group of structures in the forebrain that includes parts of the cortex, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus and that influences emotions, memory, social behavior, and brain disorders such as epilepsy
plasticity
the capability of the brain to grow and develop throughout the life span
sensation
process in which the sense organs' receptor cells are stimulated and relay initial information to the brain for further processing
perception
process by which an organism selects and interprets sensory input so that it acquires meaning
top-down analysis
analysis of perceptual phenomena that begins at the more complex level of the perceptual process, with aspects such as attention, concentration, and decision making, to see how these affect the identification of sensory stimuli
bottom-up analysis
start at most fundamental level (receptor) and work up to more complex perceptual tasks involving interpretation
subliminal
perception that occurs below the threshold of awareness
synesthesia
when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another
sensory adaptation
reduced responsiveness (less sensitivity) caused by prolonged stimulation
hypnosis
a state of consciousness during which a person's sensations, perceptions, thoughts, or behaviors change because of suggestions made to the person
meditation
the use of a variety of techniques, including concentration, restriction of incoming stimuli, and attention to breathing and muscle tension, to produce a state of consciousness characterized by a sense of detachment and deep relaxation
sleep
a natural and periodic state of rest during which consciousness of the world is suspended
dream
a state of consciousness that occurs during sleep, usually accompanied by vivid visual, tactile or auditory imagery
REM
sleep in which vivid dreams typically occur; this type of sleep increases as the night progresses while stage 4 sleep decreases
dependency
the condition that occurs when a drug becomes part of the body's functioning in such a way that the user suffers withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued
bad
staying awake for 6-7 days: bad or good?
withdrawal
the reactions experienced when a person with a drug dependence stops using the drug
psychedelic
consciousness-altering drugs that produce hallucinations, change thought processes, or disrupt the normal perception of time and space
successful hypnosis
the following things are needed for __________ __________: strong ability to visualize images and being able to become absorbed in imaginative experiences, ability to concentrate, practice
suggestibility
the development of biased memories when people are provided with misleading information
Premack principle
the concept, developed by David Premack, that a more-preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity
behaviorism
the school of psychology, founded by John Watson, that defines psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
classical conditioning
conditioning process in which an originally neutral stimulus, through repeated pairing with a stimulus that naturall elicits a response, comes to elicit a similar or even identical response; also known as Pavlovian conditioning
positive reinforcement
presentation of a stimulus after a particular repsonse in order to increase the likelihood that the response will recur
negative reinforcement
removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a particular response in order to increase the likelihood that the response will recur
reinforcement
encouraging a behavior
punishment
presenting an undesirable or noxious stimulus or removing a desirable stimulus in order to decrease or remove a behavior
learned helplessness
the behavior or fiving up or not responsing, which is exhibited by people and nonhuman animals exposed to negative consequences or punishment over which they feel they have no control
episodic memory
memory for specific personal events and situations (episodes), tagged with information about time such as what yuo did for summer break in fourth grade
procedural memory
memory for skills, including the perceptual, motor, and cognitive skills required to complete complex tasks such as driving a car, riding a bike
declarative memory
memory for specific information such as meanings of words, what a chair looks like
semantic memory
memory for ideas, rules, words, and general concepts about the world; everyday knowledge
information-processing approach
a model of human memory that proposes that information is processed and stored in three stages, moving a sequential manner from one stage to the next
chunking
putting information into manageable and meaningful units of information organized in a familiar way for easy encoding, storage and retrieval
unconditioned stimulus
stimulus that normally produces the response; ex: food, water, big animal
unconditioned response
occurs involuntarily without learning; ex: salivation, get scared or run, thirsty or urge to drink
conditioned stimulus
an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
conditioned response
the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
Pavlov
discovered classical conditioning
intrinsic behavior
engaging in a behavior for reasons of personal pleasure, satisfaction, or personal challenge
extrinsic behavior
desire to behave in certain ways to receive external rewards or avoid threatened punishment
elaborative rehearsal
rehearsal involving repetition and analysis, in which a stimulus amy be associated with (linked to) other information and further processed
maintenance rehearsal
repetitive review of information with little or no interpretation
retrieval
the process by which stored information is recovered from memory
storage
the process of maintaining or keeping information readily available, as well as the locations where information is held, also known as memory stores
validity
the ability of a test to measure only what it is supposed to measure and to predict only what it is supposed to predict
reliability
the ability of a test to yield very similar scores for the same individual over repeated testings
savant
someone who is considered mentally-retarded but shows exceptional skill in one area
functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
heuristics
sets of strategies that do not guarantee you the sam solution, have flexible guidelines, call upon hunches or intuitions
algorithims
a procedure for solving a problem by implementing a set of rules over and over again until a solution is found, guaranteed to produce a solution; ex: recipe
sexist
language with a _____ bias expresses stereotypes and role expectations about men and women; men and women are perceived, reffered to, and treated differently through language
phoneme
a basic unit of sound that combines with others to compose the words in a language
morpheme
a basic unit of meaning in a language
Binet
defined mental age as the age at which children of average ability were able to perform various tasks on the IQ test
achievement test
designed to measure how well students have learned specific content
aptitude test
designed to measure the ability to learn specific types of material; a test designed to predict a person's future performance
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
social need
an aroused condition that directs people to behave in ways that allow them to feel good about themselves and others and to establish and maintain relationships
display rules
the rules that govern the display of emotion, which vary according to age, culture, and gender, thus creating wide differences in emotional expression
evolutionary
theory of motivation that argues that natural selection favors behaviors that maximize reproductive success explains certain motives
drive
theory of motivation that assumes that an organism is movtivated to act because of a need to attain, reestablish, or maintain some goal that aids survival
arousal
theory of motivation that says that the optimal level of arousal is the level that matches the requirements of a task; performance depends on level of arousal
humanistic
theory of behavior that emphasizes the entirety of life rather than individual components of behavior and focuses on human dignity, individual choice, and self-worth; focuses on self-actualization
self-actualization
characteristic of the humanistic theory; when one strives to reach one's uniquely human potential
cognitive theory of motivation
theory of motivation that says that individuals are motivated as a result of their own thoughts, desires, goals, and expectations
Jung
argued that we all search for the meaning of life, we are all bisexual, and archetypes are the symbolic representation of our primitive ideas and images
collective unconscious
characteristic of Jung's theory, believed we have a storehouse of primitive ideas and images
conscious
experiences that we are aware of at any given time
preconscious
contains those experiences of which you are not currently conscious of but could be
sub-conscious
thoughts, urges, and memories that are beyond the realm of awareness
id
includes instincts, operates on the pleasure principal
ego
tries to satisfy needs within reality, operates on the reality principal
superego
the part of the unconscious mind that acts as a conscience
oral
a stage in psychosexual development when the child's interest is concentrated in the mouth (first stage)
anal
a stage in psychosexual development when the child's interest is concentrated on the anal region; coping with demands for control (second stage)
phallic
interest in genitallia, Oedipus complex--involves the child's unconscious desire to posses the opposite sexed parent and to eliminate the same sexed one
latent
a stage in psychosexual development occuring from about age 6 to puberty during which little happens in psychosexual terms
genital stage
in Freud's theory of personality development, the final stage of normal adult sexual development, which is usually marked by mature sexuality
social loafing
tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
social facilitation
a phenomenon in which we perform simple or well-learned tasks better when in the presence of others
groupthink
decision making by a group (especially in a manner that discourages creativity or individual responsibility)
Milgram
experiment that measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience (people will listen to anyone in a lab coat)
1
stage __ of Erikson's stages of development: basic trust v. mistrust--birth to 18 months; loving, trusting relationship with parent
2
stage __ of Erikson's stages of development: autonomy v. shame and doubt--18 months to 3 years; energy toward physical skills, develops self control
3
stage __ of Erikson's stages of development: initiative v. guilt--3 to 6 years; child becomes more assertive
4
stage __ of Erikson's stages of development: industry v. inferiority--6 to 12 years; comparing worth to others
5
stage __ of Erikson's stages of development:indentity v. role confusion--adolescence; teenager must achieve a sense of identity
6
stage __ of Erikson's stages of development: intimacy v. isolation--young adult; must choose if they want to be in an intimate relationship
7
stage __ of Erikson's stages of development: generativity v. stagnation--middle adulthood; contribute to future generations
8
stage __ of Erikson's stages of development: ego integrity v. dispair--old age; adults decide whether or not they can handle death well
mental disorder
an illness of the mind that can affect the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of a person, preventing him or her from leading a happy, healthful, and productive life
panic disorder
an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations
paranoid
a type of schizophrenia that usually seems "normal" and includes delusions and hallucinations that are centraled around a theme
catatonic
a type of schizophrenia that includes displays of excited or violent motor activity or stupor
disorganized
a type of schizophrenia that includes frequent incoherence, may exhibit bizarre emotions, disintegration of normal personality
undifferentiated
a type of schizophrenia that shows all essential features of schizophrenia, but doe not neatly fit into any of the other types
antisocial
a type of personality disorder that includes shunning contact with others and being unwilling or unable to conform to normal standards of social behavior
bystander apathy
in crowds, when someone is in trouble, individuals often fail to take action or call for help because they assume that someone else will do so
obsession
an unhealthy and compulsive preoccupation with something or someone (thinking)
compulsion
an irrational motive for performing trivial or repetitive actions against your will (doing)
obsessive-compulsive disorder
anxiety disorder characterized by persistent and uncontrollable thoughts and irrational beliefs that often cause the performance of compulsive rituals that interefere with daily life
dissociative amnesia
dissociative disorder characterized by the sudden and extensive inability to recall important personal information, usually information of a stressful or traumatic nature
dissociative identity disorder
dissociative disorder characterized by the existene within an individual of two or more distinct personalities, each of which is dominant at different times and directs the individual's behavior at those times; commonly known as multiple personality disorder
bipolar
mood disorder that includes by behavior that shifts between two extremes: mania and depression; aka manic-depressive disorder
manic phase
hyperactive, increased self-esteem, irritable or elevated mood; followed by depression. During this stage risky, adrenaline seeking behavior
Szasz
suggested that most of the mental disorders treated by clinicians are not really mental disorders; wrote The Myth of Mental Illness
electic approach
an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy
attempt
those who ________ suicide are those who try but fail; includes young, impulsive, and female
complete
those who ______ suicide are those who try and are successful; includes white, male, and older
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