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Individual
-characteristics/demographics
Microsystem: Immediate settings of activities, roles, and interpersonal relations
Mesosystem: Contains the microsystems
Exosystem: Settings which do not specifically contain the developing person, but influence "his or her developmental possibilities" and daily life (examples: BC's policies, parents work, town you grew up in, federal government, workplace, etc...)
Macrosystem: Overarching culture, beliefs, and patterns of a given society (examples: democracy, meritocracy, religion, economy, etc...).
Chronosystem: Historical events and time that shape development (examples: technology revolution, 9-11, change in presidency, etc...) Do not know if prolonged and discontinuous passage to adulthood impedes or enhances psychosocial development
Because of the discontinuity into adulthood in the US, those not college bound are having tremendous problems negotiating the passage into adulthood
As labor force continues to grow more dependent on formal education, greater division between the "haves" and "have nots"
Race/ethnicity differences:
Due to discrimination, segregation, and racism, racially and ethnically minoritized adolescents (Black, Latino/a, Native American) have more trouble managing adulthood transitions (than White & Asian)—what are some examples?
Foreign-born adolescent immigrants fair better in terms of mental health than same ethnic group who are American born
"Americanization" is associated with worse, not better outcomes
Economic differences:
Poverty is a major factor impairing the transition into adulthood
Associated with failure in school, unemployment, out-of-wedlock pregnancy (creates transitional difficulties)
Also linked to race/ethnicity differences: minoritized adolescents more likely to grow up in poverty According to Erikson, a sense of identity is experienced as a sense of well-being, a feeling of "being home in one's body," a feeling of continuity between the past and the future
When the identity crisis of adolescence is successfully resolved, culminates in a series of basic life commitments: occupational, ideological, social, religious, ethical, and sexual (Côté, 2009)
A defining characteristic of someone who has achieved a coherent sense of identity is they approach their life decisions with a strong sense of agency Independence, responsibility, and self esteem fostered by parents who are authoritative (friendly, fair, and firm), rather than authoritarian, indulgent, or indifferent.
In authoritative families, guidelines are established for adolescent behavior, but they are flexible and open to discussion
In authoritarian households, rules are rigidly enforced and seldom explained
When this is coupled with extreme coldness and punitiveness, adolescents may rebel against parents
In indulgent and indifferent families, parents do not provide sufficient guidance for adolescents; do not acquire adequate standards for behavior As adolescents spend more time outside the family, the opinions and advice of others become more important
Studies show that in some situations, peers' opinions more influential, and in other situations, parents' opinions are more powerful
Peers: More impact on the short-term, day to day, and social matters—music, style, choices in leisure activities, etc...
Parents: More impact on the long-term—educational or vocational plans, values, religious beliefs, or ethics Two most important changes in brain functioning involving the prefrontal cortex in adolescence lead to greater efficiency in information processing
Patterns of activation within the prefrontal cortex become more focused
Individuals become more likely to use multiple parts of the brain simultaneously and coordinate activity between prefrontal regions and other areas
Simultaneous coordinated activity of multiple brain regions, working as a "team," called functional connectivity
As individuals mature through adolescence, more distant regions become increasingly connected
Maturation of functional connectivity typically completed by 22
Different type of functional change results from changes (especially in the limbic system) in ways in which brain affected by certain neurotransmitters, particularly:
Dopamine: Important in brain circuits that regulate experience of reward
Serotonin: Important for the experience of different moods
These changes, linked to puberty, have an impact on adolescents how?
The changes to the limbic system occur early in adolescence, in contrast to development in the prefrontal cortex
Brain changes may provoke individuals to seek novelty, reward, and stimulation several years before complete maturation of the brain area that that regulate judgment, decision making, and impulse control Drugs of choice: 1) Alcohol, 2) Marijuana, 3) Tobacco
By the time individuals are seniors in high school, 70% have tried alcohol, 46% have smoke marijuana, and 40% have smoked cigarettes
Very small proportion of adolescents have serious drug dependency or use "hard" drugs
Changes in substance abuse:
Marijuana, which was on the decline since the 70's, rose sharply during mid 90's
Alcohol use has been on a slower decline since the 80's
Teen smoking, which increased in the 90's, has declined dramatically
A couple of quick facts:
Gender gap has narrowed in drug use—but who tends to abuse more?
The chances of becoming addicted to alcohol/nicotine increases dramatically when substance use begins before the age of 15
Drugs of choice: 1) Alcohol, 2) Marijuana, 3) Tobacco
By the time individuals are seniors in high school, 70% have tried alcohol, 46% have smoke marijuana, and 40% have smoked cigarettes
Very small proportion of adolescents have serious drug dependency or use "hard" drugs
Changes in substance abuse:
Marijuana, which was on the decline since the 70's, rose sharply during mid 90's
Alcohol use has been on a slower decline since the 80's
Teen smoking, which increased in the 90's, has declined dramatically
A couple of quick facts:
Gender gap has narrowed in drug use—but who tends to abuse more?
The chances of becoming addicted to alcohol/nicotine increases dramatically when substance use begins before the age of 15 3 main categories of externalizing problems:
1) Conduct Disorder: Repetitive and persistent pattern of antisocial behavior that results in problems at school, work, or in relationship to others
Very stable between childhood and adolescence
Individuals who have been diagnosed with conduct disorder and who persist in antisocial behavior after age 18, may be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder: Antisocial behavior and persistent disregard for rules of society and rights of others
Some individuals with antisocial personality disorders are psychopaths: Antisocial AND manipulative, superficially charming, impulsive, and indifferent to feelings of others
This cluster of of characteristics referred to as callous-unemotional (CU) traits
2) Aggression: Behavior that is done intentionally to hurt someone, like physical fighting, intimation, etc...
Stable over time (from childhood to adolescence), although more so in males than females
3) Juvenile Offending: Includes delinquency (crimes committed by minors and dealt with by juvenile justice system) and criminal behavior (crimes dealt with by criminal justice system)
Unlike conduct disorder and aggression, which are defined in terms of behavior, juvenile offending is defined legally
Violent crimes and property crimes peak during late high school years and decline during young adulthood Although it is common for adolescents to experience fluctuations in self-esteem, it is not the norm to feel a prolonged or intense sense of hopelessness, frustration, or sadness
Depression is the most common internalizing problem in adolescence
Depression: A psychological disturbance characterized by low self-esteem, decreased motivation, sadness, and difficulty in finding pleasure in formerly pleasurable activities
Mood, Syndromes, and Disorder (important to differentiate)
Depressed mood: feeling sad
Depressive syndromes: Having multiple symptoms of depressions
Depressive disorder: Having enough symptoms to be diagnosed with depression
Depressed mood, depressive syndrome, and depressive disorder become more common over adolescence partly because of the increase in stressful events during adolescence
One reason depression declines after late adolescence is that individuals report a decline in stress during this time period
What do you think?? Do you feel less stressed now than as a teenager?
Some studies indicate that there have been historical increases in the prevalence of depression and other internalized disorders, with rates increasing for each generation—thoughts?! Up to 10% of American female high school students, and 6% of males, attempt suicide each year
2x as many adolescents think about killing themselves, known as suicidal ideation
Suicidal ideation increases during early adolescence and peaks around age 15
Suicide is the leading cause of death for young people—why is this?
Many adolescents do not contemplate suicide, but commit acts of non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI)—what does this mean?
Some studies indicate that nearly 25% of adolescents have engaged in NSSI at least once (reasons: reduce tension, anger, anxiety; prompt feelings...)
Risk factors for suicide: Having a psychiatric problem, having a history of suicide in the family, being under stress (especially in terms of sexuality or achievement), and experiencing parental rejection, family disruption, or extensive family conflict
More likely to attempt suicide if one of their friends of someone in community has As a freshman in college, Jade was determined to make close friends with only Koreans, since she herself is Korean and went to a predominantly Asian high school. Since she grew up around Asians, she thought this was the easiest way to make friends. Thus, during her freshman year, the only club she joined was the Korean Students Association. However, at the end of freshman year, Jade felt like she was stuck in the "Asian Bubble" and wanted to diversify her friend groups. Therefore during sophomore year, she decided to branch off and she joined the Black and Latino Student Union. Through this club, Jade has made many meaningful friendships with people from different backgrounds and cultures. Given this scenario, which one of Chickering's seven vectors is Jade demonstrating? and how so? 