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Medical Terminology Chapter 19

Terms in this set (243)

a Latin word meaning crab, was first identified around 400 BC during the time of Hippocrates; early reports on cancer compared the disease to a crab because of its tendency to stretch out and spread like the crab;s four pairs of legs; today, cancer refers to any malignant tumor; the incidence of cancer is now five times than it was 100 years ago; cancer will strike one of every three Americans, according to recent statistics from the American Cancer Society; however there is hope for those afflicted; cancer has become one of the more treatable of the major diseases in the US; highly advanced surgical techniques are being used to remove cancerous tissue, and it is usually possible to excise all the cancer cells when the malignancy is discovered in its earliest stages; chemotherapy (chemo) and radiation therapy are the other two principal means of treatment for patients with cancer; these treatments employ agents to kill cancerous cells that remain after surgery or in malignancies deemed inoperable; immunotherapy and photodynamic therapy are two newer methods employed in the treatment of cancer; although the exact cause or causes remain unknown research has shown that some cancers can be prevented especially those associated with environmental factors; oncologists searching for the causes of cancer have identified numerous factors; oncologists searching for the cause of cancer have identified numerous factors that play a role in the development of cancer; these factors are generally grouped under three main classifications: environmental, hereditary and biological; the American cancer society recommends various safeguards against cancer, which encourages individuals to take specific steps to safeguard their health and aid in the early detection of cancer
cancer
helps determine appropriate treatment and prognosis; tumors are classified according to their anatomical site of origin, grading and staging; cell differentiation and the invasive process are also elements of the classification process
classification of cancer
indicates where the cancer originated in the body; carcinomas make up the great majority of all cancers and are malignant tumors of epithelial tissues; epithelial tissue lines body surfaces including those of glands and organs; therefore, carcinomas make up the majority of the glandular cancers and are generally found in the breast, stomach, uterus, tongue, and skin; they are named according to the type of epithelial cell in which the malignancy occurs or the primary site of the tumor; for instance, a cancer of squamous epithelium is called a squamous carcinoma and a type of skin cancer is called a basal cell carcinoma; likewise, a cancer originating in the bronchus of the respiratory tract is a bronchogenic carcinoma; sarcomas originate in connective supportive tissues of the body such as the muscles, tendons, fat, joints and bone; they are named by adding the suffix -oma (tumor) with the root sarc (flesh) to the word part that identifies the tissue of origin; a cancer of the bone, for example, is an osteosarcoma: osteo (CF), bone; sarc (R), flesh; and -oma (S) tumor; leukemias are cancers of the blood forming tissues; lymphomas are cancerous tumors of the lymph nodes, and myelomas are cancerous tumors arising in the hematopoietic portion of the bone marrow
anatomical site
normal cells reproduce themselves through mitosis, an orderly process that ensures growth, tissue repair, and cell reproduction; normal cells have a distinct appearance and a specialized function; in normal cell development, immature cells undergo normal changes as they mature and assume their specialized functions; this process is called differentiation; knowledge of cell differentiation allows a pathologist or histologist to identify the body area from which the tissue was removed by looking at a sample of tissue through a microscope; in cancer an abnormal process in which a cells or group of cells undergoes changes and no longer carries on normal cell functions occur; this failure of immature cells to develop specialized functions is called dedifferentiation; it is believed that this process involves a disturbance in the DNA of the affected cells; malignant cells usually multiply rapidly, forming a mass of abnormal cells that enlarges, ulcerates, and sheds malignant cells that invade surrounding tissues; this process destroys the normal cells, and malignant cells take their places; microscopic analysis of a malignant cell reveals a loss of differentiation, anaplasia, nuclei of various sizes that are hyperchromatic, and cells in the process of rapid and disorderly division; based on microscopic analysis, malignant tumors are further classified as grades 1, 2, 3, or 4; the following describes each of the four grades of tumors in this system: grade 1: the most differentiated and the least malignant tumors, only a few cells are undergoing mitosis; however some abnormally does exist; grade 2: moderately undifferentiated; more cells are undergoing mitosis and the pattern is fairly irregular; grade 3: many undifferentiated cells; tissue origin can be difficult to recognize; many cells are undergoing mitosis; grade 4: the least differentiated and high degrees of malignancy; this system of grading tumors is used to report the prognosis of the disease and to determine whether the tumor is likely to respond to radiation therapy or chemotherapy as well as the prognosis for surgery
cell differentiation and grading
the spreading process of a malignant tumor into adjacent normal tissue; young malignant cells divide at the periphery of the tumor and spread by active migration or direct extension; in active migration, the malignant cells break away from the neoplasm (new growth), invade surrounding tissue, divide, form secondary tumors (neoplasms), and then reunite with the primary tumor as growth continues; in direct extension, multiplication of malignant cells is rapid and subsequently into surrounding tissues via the interstitial (situated between the cells of a structure) spaces accompanied by engulfment and destruction of normal cells; as a timor's mass enlarges, its weight is supported by connective fibers that attach to surrounding structures; these fibers invade adjacent veins and lymph vessels and become pathways for the spread of malignant cells to distant locations, such as breast cancer can spread to the bone, lung, or liver
invasive growth
the process whereby cancer cells are spread from a primary site to distant secondary sites elsewhere in the body; this process usually occurs when malignant cells invade the bloodstream or lymph system and are transported to a secondary site where they become lodged and form a neoplasm; malignant cells carried in the bloodstream can lodge in highly vascular depends on the viability and the receptivity of the organ
metastasis
further reporting of the development and spread of cancer cells may be made through the use of a system that evaluates the spread of the tumor; the staging system uses the letters T (tumors), N (node), and M (metastasis) to indicate spread and uses numerical subscripts degree of tumor involvement; the numerical system used to classify the staging of cancer describes the various stages according to the extend of the spreading process; stage 0: cancer limited to the tissue of origin and has not spread past the tissue or organ where it started; stage 1: cancer limited to the tissue of origin and has not spread past the tissue or organ where it started; stage 2: limited local spread of cancerous cells, sometimes to lymph nodes; stage 3: extensive local and regional spread of cancer, usually to draining lymph nodes; stage 4: distant metastasis, has spread beyond the regional lymph nodes to distant parts of the body; for example T2N1M0 inficates a primary tumor at stage 2 abnormality of regional lymph nodes at stage 1, and no evidence of distant metastasis
staging
neoplasms may be benign or malignant; as malignant cells proliferate and begin in the invasive process, the patient is unaware of the development of the cancer; in its early stages, cancer is said to be silent; however cytological (at the cellular level) changes are occurring that could be detected if a tissue sample were taken and analyzed by a pathologist; with the proliferation of malignant cells and the continuation of the invasive process, tissues, organs, and surrounding structures become compressed; this bleeding is usually occult (hidden); because of the silent development of cancer, the patient does not usually become aware of its symptoms until its systemic effects are evident; these systemic effects depend on the site and type of cancer but usually result in an imbalance in the patient's physiology, leading to subtle but noticeable changes that can warn of the disease; the American cancer society lists seven warning signals of cancer; the first letters of each warning signal combine to spell the word CAUTION and persons who develop any of the following symptoms should bring it to the attention of a physician immediately: Change in bowel or bladder habits, A sore that does not heal, Unusual bleeding or discharge, Thickening or lump in breast or elsewhere, Indigestion or difficulty in swallowing, Obvious change in a wart or mole, Nagging cough or hoarseness
tumors
grow slowly; are encapsulated; have cells that resemble the normal cells from which they arose; grow by grow by expansion and cause pressure on surrounding tissue; remain localized; do not recur when surgically removed; have minimal tissue destruction; have no cachexia; are usually not a threat to life
benign tumors
grow rapidly; are not encapsulated; have cells that undergo permanent change, abnormal rapid proliferation; have invasive growth and metastasis; spread via the bloodstream; can recur when surgically removed if invasive growth has occurred; have extensive tissue destruction if invasive has occurred; have cachexia (extreme weakness, fatigue, wasting, and malnutrition); are threats to life unless detected early and properly treated
malignant tumors
used to detect the possible presence of cancer; principal among these are examination, visualization by endoscopy, lab analysis, biopsy, and diagnostic radiology
diagnostic tool and procedures
could be the best means to protect a person's state of health; the American cancer society publishes a cancer detection examination that recommends certain tests be included in an annual physical examination in addition to the medical history and usual test
annual physical examination
provides the physician a direct view of certain portions of the body
endoscopy
use of a sigmoidoscope to examine the lower 10 inches of the large intestines
sigmoidoscopy
use of a laryngoscope to examine the interior of the larynx
laryngoscopy
use of a bronchoscope to examine the bronchi
bronchoscopy
use of a gastroscope to examine the interior of the stomach
gastroscopy
use of a cystoscope to examine the bladder
cystoscopy
use of a colposcope to examine the cervix and vagina
colposcopy
use of a proctoscope to examine the anus and rectum
proctoscopy
use of a colonoscope to examine the colon
colonoscopy
use of a laparoscope to examine the abdomen
laparoscopy
plays a key role in detecting specific types of cancer
lab analysis
cytological screening test developed by Dr. George Papanicolaou and used to detect the presence of abnormal or cancerous cells from the cervix and vagina
pap smear/test
test to detect occult (hidden) blood in the stool (feces); if present, further testing would be needed to check for possible cancer of the colon
fecal occult blood test
microscopic examination of sputum to detect abnormal or cancerous cells of the bronchi and lungs
sputum cytology test
analysis of blood serum to obtain useful information about certain proteins synthesized by cancer; two such tests are the AFP and hCG
blood serum test
test to diagnose or monitor fetal distress or fetal abnormalities, diagnose some liver disorders, and screen for and monitor some cancers; higher than normal levels can indicate cancer is testes, ovaries, biliary tract, stomach or pancreas
alpha-fetoprotein test
test in which abnormal results can indicate ectopic pregnancy, miscarriage, testicular cancer, or trophoblastic tumor; it is used to monitor treatment in certain patients with cancer; during therapy, a falling hCG level indicates that the cancer is responding to treatment; rising levels can indicate that the cancer is not responding to therapy; increased levels after treatment can indicate a recurrence of disease
human chorionic gonadotropin test
a test to detect abnormal bone marrow cells, which can indicate leukemia
bone marrow study
test providing useful information about catecholamines, which can indicate pheochromocytoma of the adrenal medulla
urine assay test
test that measures the amount of this protein in the blood; CA-125 is found on the surface of many ovarian cancer cells; it also can be found in other cancers and in small amounts in normal tissue
cancer antigen 125
test that measures the amount of a protein that can appear in the blood of some people who have certain kinds of cancer, especially large intestine (colon and rectal) cancer; also can be present in people with cancer of the pancreas, breast, ovary or lung
carcinoembryonic antigen
tests can be performed on breast cancer cells to determine the presence of HER-2/neu protein, a genetic protein that is in part responsible for how certain cancer cells grow, divide, and repair themselves; this information is useful when making treatment decisions
human epidermal growth factor receptor-2
blood test that measures the amount of PSA, a substance produced by the prostate gland; should be offered every year to men 50 years of age or older; the American cancer society recommends that screening tests start at age 40 for AA men and men with a family history of prostate cancer
prostate-specific antigen
the surgical removal of a small piece of tissue for microscopic examination is known as biopsy; it is the method of providing the proof of cancer in the diagnosis of the disease
biopsy
surgical removal of a piece of tissue from the suspected body site
excisional biopsy
surgical incision to remove a section or wedge of tissue from the suspected body site
incisional biopsy
puncture of a tumor for the removal of a core of tissue through the lumen of a needle
needle biopsy
form of breast biopsy in which a small needle is used to withdraw a sample of cells from the breast lump; if the lump is a cyst, removal of the fluid will cause the cyst to collapse; if the lump is solid, cells can be smeared onto slides for examination
fine needle aspiration
alternative to traditional surgical biopsy; the procedure which uses a mammogram-guided needle, is performed by a radiologist and assisted by mammography technologists; it is most helpful when mammography shows a mass, a cluster of microcalcifications (tiny calcium deposits that are closely grouped together) or an area of abnormal tissue change but no lump can be felt on careful breast examination
stereotactic biopsy
large bore needle removal of a generous sample of breast tissue and a vacuum assisted needle biopsy device, which uses vacuum suction to obtain a tissue sample
core biopsy
removal of a cone of tissue from the uterine cervix
cone biopsy
removal of a piece of bone marrow from the sternum
sternal biopsy
removal of a piece of tissue through an endoscope
endoscopic biopsy
removal of a plug of tissue (epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous tissue) from the skin
punch biopsy
process by which a physician pinpoints the first lymph node into which a tumor drains (the sentinel node) and removes only the nodes most likely to contain cancer cells; to locate the sentinel node, the physician injects a radioactive tracer in the area around the tumor; the tracer travels the same path to the lymph nodes that cancer cells would take, making it possible for the surgeon to determine the one or two nodes most likely to test positive; the surgeon then removes the nodes most likely to be cancerous for evaluation and staging
sentinel node biopsy
encompassing a wide range of tests and procedures __ ___ can reveal tumors that were not detected by other diagnostic procedures
diagnostic radiology
can employ any one or a combination of the following methods: surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, or photodynamic therapy; the treatment of choice depends on the type on cancer, its location, its invasive process, and the patient's state of health; the ultimate goal of treatment is to kill every cancer cell; therefore, the need to treat tumors at an early stage is critical; for example a 1 cm breast tumor can contain 1 billion cancer cells before it is detected; a drug killing 99% of these cells would be considered an excellent drug, but 10 million cancer cells would still remain in the body
treatment
can be the treatment of choice when the tumor is small and localized and the surrounding tissue us accessible for removal; the aim of surgery is to remove all cancerous tissue plus some of the surrounding normal tissue; surgery is also used to alleviate some of the complications of cancer, such as the obstruction of an area caused by the enlargement of a tumor; a type of microscopically controlled surgery, Mohs, created by a general surgeon, Dr. Frederic E. Mohs, can be used to remove the two most common forms of skin cancer, basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma; the Mohs procedure is essentially a pathology sectioning method that allows for the complete examination of the surgical margin, while the patient is still present in the office; it is different from the standard technique of sectioning in which random samples of the surgical margin are examined, sent to a lab for analysis and then the patient is notified of the results and if indicated must schedule another visit for further treatment; the Mohs surgery is performed in four steps during one visit: surgical removal of tissue, mapping the piece of tissue, freezing and cutting the tissue between 5 and 10 micrometers using a cryostat (device for maintaining very low [cold' temperatures) and staining with hematoxylin and eosin, a popular stain used in medical diagnosis, interpretation of microscope slides for the presence of cancerous cells, reconstruction of the surgical site as needed; the procedure is usually performed in a physician;s office using a local anesthetic; a small scalpel is utilized to cut around the visible tumor; a very small surgeon margin is utilized usually with 1 to 1.5 mm of free margin or uninvolved skin; the amount of free margin removed is much less than the usual 4 to 6 mm required for the standard excision of skin cancers; after each surgical removal of tissue, the specimen is processed, cut on the cryostat and placed on slides, stained with H&E and then read by the Mohs surgeon/pathologist who examines the sections for cancerous cells; if cancer is found its location is marked on the map (drawing of the tissue) and the surgeon removes the indicated cancerous tissue from the patient; this procedure is repeated until no further cancer is found
surgery
can be the treatment of choice when the cancer is disseminated (widespread) and cannot be surgically removed; it is also used when a tumor fails to respond to radiation therapy; antineoplastic drugs injure individual cells, interfere with their vital functions, and kill or destroy malignant cells; in rendering cancerous cells harmless, certain normal cells could also be destroyed; the normal cells with the greatest sensitivity to destruction are the hematopoietic cells, epithelial cells, and the hair follicles; the plan of treatment for patients undergoing chemotherapy is individualized; the aim of chemotherapy is to put the patient in remission so that life can continue without exacerbation of symptoms
chemotherapy
use of ionizing radiation; in all cases, this treatment seeks to deliver a precise calculated dose of radiation to a tumor, while causing the least possible damage to surrounding normal tissue; can be defined as the process whereby, energy is beamed from its source to a selected target tissue; substances that emit radiation are said to be radioactive; malignant cells are more sensitive to radiation because these cells divide frequently making the DNA replication more vulnerable to destruction; radiation is frequently used as either a curative or a palliative mode of therapy; certain types of cancer cells can be destroyed by radiation therapy this preventing the unrestrained growth of such tumors; in other cancers, radiation has only a palliative effect, preventing cell growth, reducing pain, pressure and bleeding but not providing complete tumor destruction; important factors that must be considered when determining the use of radiotherapy for the cancer patient include the following: the tumor must be surrounded by normal tissue that can tolerate the radiation and then repair itself; the tumor must not be widespread, if the tumor has metastasized, radiation can be used as a palliative form of treatment; the tumor must be moderately sensitive to radiation (a radiosensitive tumor); radiotherapy is often the treatment of choice for cancers of the skin, uterus, cervix or larynx or those located within the oral cavity; with other types of cancer, radiotherapy is frequently used in combination with other forms of treatment, including surgery and chemotherapy
radiation therapy
with the ERT method, the patient receives calculated doses of radiation from a machine located at some distance from the site of the tumor; the patient is carefully prepared for treatment by a radiation therapist, sometimes assisted by the dosimetrist or a radiation physicist; the precise size and location of the tumor are determined, and the port or point of entry for the radiation is marked using a dye or tattoo; in formulating the treatment plan, a computer is used to calculate the radiation dosage needed to effect maximal destruction of malignant cells and minimal damage to surrounding normal tissue; special lead blockers or shields can be constructed by a radiation physicist to protect surrounding normal tissue from the harmful effects of radiation
external radiation therapy
the IRT method of treatment can have two forms of administration, known as sealed and unsealed radiation therapy; sealed radiation therapy involved the implantation of sealed containers of radioactive material near the tumor site within the body; unsealed radiation therapy involved the introduction of a liquid containing a radioactive substance into the patient through the mouth, via the bloodstream or by instillation into a body cavity
internal radiation therapy
radioactive material such as radium, cesium-137, cobalt-60, and iridium-192 is sealed in small gold containers called seeds or within molds, plaques, needles or other devices designed to hold the radioactive substance near the malignancy; in some cases, the radiation source is implanted within the cancerous tissue; in other cases, special devices or applicators have been designed to hold the implant in position for the desired period of treatment
sealed radiation therapy
radioactive iodine-131, radioactive phosphorus-32 and radioactive gold-198 are some of the substances used in the unsealed form of internal radiation therapy; phosphorus-32 may be intravenously administered for use in the treatment of leukemia or lymphoma; gold-198 and/or phosphorus-32 is placed in colloidal suspension and instilled in a body cavity for the palliative treatment of certain malignancies; iodine-131 can be orally administered, usually in conjunction with a thyroidectomy
unsealed radiation therapy
because radiotherapy unavoidably affects normal tissue while destroying malignant cells, patients usually ecperience some unpleasant side effects; the degree of severity associated with the side effects depends on the individual, the cancer, its located and the amount of radiation; the following are some side effects that can occur as a result of radiation therapy: anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, malaise, mild erythema, edema, ulcers, alopecia, taste blindness, stomatitis, mucositis, and xerostomia
side effects of radiation
system combines an advanced form of intensity modulated radiation therapy with the accuracy of CT scanning technology, all in one machine; this approach treats hard to reach tumors that often sit closed to healthy tissues and organs while minimizing damage to these surrounding tissues; advantages: before every treatment, advanced scanning technology provides a 3D image of the body, so the radiation beams can be targeted according to the size, shape and location of the tumor on that specific day; during treatment the doctor can adjust the intensity and direction of the radiation beams in real time; the revolutionary slice therapy approach treats tumors one layer at a time; after treatment, side effects are minimized because less radiation reaches healthy tissue and organs; each treatment takes about 20 minutes including roughly five minutes for the CT scan, fibe minutes for the radiation treatment itself and time for setup; many cancer patients who have reached their max tolerance dose of traditional radiation may be candidates for TomoTherapy
TomoTherapy highly integrated adaptive radiotherapy
the treatment of disease by stimulation of the body's immune system; it may be used as an adjuvant to other types of treatment; there are three types of immunotherapy: active specific (the use of various agents to produce a specific host immune response), passive (the use of serum or other products from an immunocompetent individual that are given to an immunodeficient individual to produce an immune response) and adoptive (the process of transferring a form of specific immune response from a donor to a recipient)
immunotherapy
a type of laser therapy, involves the use of a special chemical that is injected into the bloodstream and absorbed by cells all over the body; the chemical rapidly leaves normal cells but remains in cancer cells for a longer time; a laser light aimed at the cancer activates the chemical, which then kills the cancer cells that have absorbed it; photodynamic therapy can be used to reduce symptoms of non small cell lung cancer, for example, to control bleeding or to relieve breathing problems due to blocked airways when the cancer cannot be removed through surgery; photodynamic therapy can also be used to treat very small tumors in patients for whom the usual treatments for lung cancer are not appropriate and in patients with esophageal cancer
photodynamic therapy
the most common cancer among women; the majority of cases are sporadic, meaning there is not a family history of breast cancer, as opposed to genetic, in which genes predispose a person to the disease; men can also develop breast cancer, but it accounts for less than 1% of breast cancer cases; early detection of breast cancer is extremely important; the five year survival rate for women wit localized and properly treated breast cancer is about 97%; for all stages of breast cancer, it is about 87%; if cancer is not detected and treated early it will continue to grow, invade, and destroy adjacent tissue and spread into surrounding lymph nodes; it can be carried by the lymph and blood to other areas of the body and once this process, known as metastasis, has occurred, the cancer is usually advanced and/or disseminated and the five year survival rate is low; approximately 50% of malignant tumors of the breast appear in the upper outer quadrant and extend into the armpit; eighteen percent of breast cancers occur in the nipple area, 11% in the lower outer quadrant and 6% in the inner quadrant; sign and symptoms of breast cancer are generally insidious and may include: unusual secretions from the nipple, changes int he nipple's appearance, nontender movable lump, well localized discomfort that may be described as burning, stinging or aching sensation, dimpling or peau d'orange (orange peel appearance) may be present over the area of cancer of the breast, asymmetry and an elevation of the affected breast, nipple retraction, pain in the later stages; stages of breast cancer indicate the size of a tumor and how far the cancer has spread within the breast, to nearby tissues and to other organs; specific treatment is most often determined by the following stages of the disease: carcinoma in situ--cancer is confined to the lobules (milk producing glands) or ducts (passages connecting milk producing glands to the nipple) and has not invaded nearby breast tissue; also referred to as ductal carcinoma in situ; stage 1: tumor is smaller then or equal to 2 cm in diameter and axillary (underarm) lymph nodes test negative for cancer; stage 2: tumor is between 2 and 5 cm in diameter with or without positive lymph nodes, or tumor is greater than 5 cm without positive lymph nodes; stage 3: this stage is divided into substage known as IIIA and IIIB--IIIA=tumor is larger than 5 centimeters with positive movable lymph nodes, or tumor is any size with lymph nodes that adhere to one another or surrounding tissue and IIIB=tumor of any size has spread to the skin, chest wall, or internal mammary lymph nodes (located beneath the breast and inside the chest); stage 4: tumor regardless of size has metastasized (spread) to distance sites such as bones, lungs or lymph nodes not near the breast; recurrent breast cancer--the disease has returned in spite of initial treatment; in 2012 a study funded by the national cancer institute and the national human genome research institute, both part of the national institutes of health revealed genomic similarities between breast cancer and ovarian cancer; it was found that one subtype of breast cancer shared many genetic features with high grade serous ovarian cancer; the findings suggest that the two cancers are of similar molecular origin, which may facilitate the comparison of therapeutic data for subtypes of breast an ovarian cancers; analysis of genomic data have confirmed that there are four primary subtypes of breast cancer, each with its own biology and survival outlooks; the four groups are called intrinsic subtypes of breast cancer: HER2-enriched (HER2E), luminal A (LumA), Luminal B (LumB) and basal like; more than 90% of all breast lumps are discovered by women themselves; the majority of these lumps are benign but for those that are not early detection and treatment are essential; a woman should examine her breasts every month; check for appearance, size, shape, symmetry, tenderness, thickening, and texture changes
breast cancer
cancer that usually affects the white blood cells; white blood cells develop from stem cells in the bone marrow; results when something goes wrong with the process of maturation from stem cells to white blood cell and a cancerous change occurs; the change often involved a rearrangement of pieces of chromosomes; because the chromosomal rearrangements disturb the normal control of cell division, the affected cells multiply without restraint becoming cancerous; they ultimately occupy the bone marrow, replacing the cells that produce normal blood cells; these leukemic (cancer) cells may also invade other organs, including the liver, spleen, lymph nodes, kidneys, and brain; there are 4 types of leukemia, named for how quickly they progress and which kind of white blood cell they affect; acute leukemia progress rapidly; chronic leukemias progress slowly; lymphocytic leukemias affect lymphocytes; myeloid (myelocytic) leukemias affect myelocytes
leukemia
a life threatening disease is which the cells that normally develop into lymphocytes become cancerous and rapidly replace normal cells in the bone marrow; it is the most common type of leukemia in children and young people under the age of 19; may be called by several names, including acute lymphoid leukemia and acute lymphoblastic leukemia
acute lymphocytic leukemia
life threatening disease in which myelocytes become cancerous and rapidly replace normal cells in the bone marrow; this type of leukemia affects people of all ages, but mostly adults; may also be called by several names, including myelocytic, myeloblastic and myelomonocytic leukemia
acute myeloid leukemia
referred to as chronic lymphoid leukemia, strike nearly 9,730 people in the US yearly; chronic lymphocytic leukemia is characterized by a large number of cancerous mature lymphocytes (a type of white blood cells) and enlarged lymph nodes; more than 3/4 of the people who have this type of leukemia are over age 60; it affects men two to three times more often than women
chronic lymphocytic leukemia
a disease in which a cell in the bone marrow becomes cancerous and produces a large number of abnormal granulocytes; this disease may affect people of any age and of either sex but in uncommon in children under 10; may also be referred to as myeloid, myelogenous and granulocytic leukemia
chronic myelocytic leukemia
cancers that begin in the lungs are divided into two major types, non-small cell lung cancer and small cell lung cancer, depending on how the cells look under a microscope; each type of lung cancer grows and spreads in different ways and is treated differently; there are three main types of non-small cell lung cancer; they are named for the type of cells in which the cancer develops: squamous cell carcinoma (also called epidermoid carcinoma), adenocarcinoma, and large cell carcinoma; small cell lung cancer, sometimes called oat cell cancer, is less common than non-small cell lung cancer; this types of lung cancer grows more quickly and is more likely to spread to other organs in the body; to diagnose lung cancer, the doctor evaluates a person's medical history, smoking history, exposure to environmental and occupational substances and family history of cancer; the doctor also performs a physical exam and may order a chest x-ray and other tests; if lung cancer is suspected, sputum cytology (the microscopic examination of cells obtained from a deep cough sample of mucus in the lungs) is a simple test that may be useful in detecting lung cancer; to confirm the presence of lung cancer the doctor must perform a biopsy and examine tissue from the lung; treat depends on a number of factors, including the type of lung cancer (non-small or small cell lung cancer); the size, location, and extent of the tumor; and the general health of the patient; many different treatments and combinations of treatments may be used for lung cancer such as surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or photodynamic therapy
lung cancer
a disease in which malignant cells form in the tissues of one or both testicles; it is the most common cancer in men age 20 to 35; in a given year about 7500 American men are diagnosed with this type of cancer; most testicular tumors are discovered by patients themselves, either by accident or while performing a testicular self examination; it is most important that testicular cancer be diagnosed early so young men should be taught how to examine their testicles; the most common presenting sign of testicular cancer is of an enlarges, painless lump or swelling in either testicle; the lump typically is pea-sized but sometimes it might be as big as a marble or even an egg; occasionally there may be pain; with early detection, the survival rates for testicular cancer are approximately 95% at five years for seminomas and nonseminomas localized to the testis; nearly all testicular tumors stem from germ cells, the special sperm forming cells within the testicles; these tumors fall into one of two types, seminomas or nonseminomas; other forms of testicular cancer, such as sarcomas or lymphomas are extremely rare; testicular cancer is diagnosed by a medical history and physical examination, ultrasound, serum tumor marker test and a radical inguinal orchidectomy including a tissue biopsy; a seminoma, a cancerous tumor of the testis, is diagnosed by biopsy; imaging tests such as chest x-ray, computed tomography are often utilized to assess the spread of the disease and the staging of the cancer; staging allows the doctor to plan the most appropriate treatment for each patient; stages of testicular cancer are as follows: stage 1: cancer confined to the testicle; stage 2: disease spread to retroperitoneal lymph nodes, located in the rear of the body below the diaphragm; stage 3: cancer spread beyond the lymph nodes to remote sites in the body, such as the lungs and/or liver; recurrent: recurrent disease means that the cancer has come back after it has been treated; it may come back in the same place or in another part of the body; no one treatment works for all testicular cancers; because certain treatments can cause infertility, the patient who wishes to have children should consider sperm banking before beginning treatment
testicular cancer
aden/o
gland
angi/o
vessel
cancer/o
crab, cancer
capsul/o
a little box
carcin/o
cancer
chondr/o
cartilage
chori/o
chorion
cyt/o
cell
dendr/o
tree
duct/o
to lead
fibr/o
fiber
filtrat/o
to strain through
gli/o
glue
hem/o
blood
immun/o
safe, immunity
lei/o
smooth
leuk/o
white
lip/o
fat
lymph/o
lymph
malign/o
bad kind
medull/o
marrow
melan/o
black
meningi/o, mening/o
meninges, membrane
mucos/o
mucus
mutat/o
to change
my/o
muscle
myc/o
fungus
myel/o
bone marrow
nephr/o
kidney
neur/o
nerve
onc/o
tumor
oste/o
bone
palliat/o
cloaked
remiss/o
remit
reticul/o
net
retin/o
retina
rhabd/o
rod
sarc/o
flesh
semin/o
seed
stom/o
mouth
suppress/o
suppress
terat/o
monster
thym/o
thymus
tox/o
poison
vir/o
virus (poison)
xer/o
dry
malignant tumor arising in a glandular organ
adenocarcinoma
adjuvant therapy is any treatment given after primary therapy to increase the chance of long term survival; neoadjuvant therapy is treatment given before primary therapy; adjuvant therapy for breast cancer, foe example, can include chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, the targeted drug Herceptin (trastuzumab)m radiation therapy or a combination of treatments
adjuvant therapy
characteristic of most cancerous cells in which there is a loss of differentiation and an irreversible alteration in adult cells toward embryonic cell types
anaplasia
tumor composed of star shaped neuroglial cells
astrocytoma
megavoltage machine used in adminstering external radiation therapy
betatron
radiation therapy in which the radioactive substance is inserted into a body cavity or organ; the source of radiation is located a short distance from the body area being treated
brachytherapy
malignant tumor, most commonly found in Africa, that affects children; the characteristic symptom is a massive, swollen jaw
Burkitt lymphoma
agent or substance that incites or produces cancer
carcinogen
tumor derived from the argentaffin cells in the intestinal tract, bile duct, pancreas, bronchus, or ovary
carcinoid
malignant tumor arising in epithelial tissue
carcinoma
cancerous tumor derived from cartilage cells
chondrosarcoma
cancerous tumor of the uterus or at the site of an ectopic pregnancy
choriocarcinoma
megavoltage machine used in administering external radiation therapy
cyclotron
process by which normal cells lose their specialization (differentiation) and become malignant
dedifferentiation
complex protein of high molecular weight found in the nucleus of every cell; controls all of the cell's activities and the genetic material necessary for the organism's heredity
deoxyribonucleic acid
process by which normal cells have a distinct appearance and specialized function
differentiation
abnormal cells that involve only the lining of a duct and have not spread outside the duct to other tissues in the breast; also called intraductal carcinoma
ductal carcinoma in situ
enclosed within a site, sheath, or capsule
encapsulated
primary bone cancer occurring in the pelvic area or in one of the long bones; occurs mostly in children and adolescents
Ewing sarcoma
process of increasing the severity of symptoms; a time when the symptoms of a disease are most prevalent
exacerbation
process of administering radiation to the patient via a radiation machine located outside the body
external radiation
cancerous tumor arising in collagen producing fibroblasts
fibrosarcoma
process of growing rapidly, like a fungus
fungating
a rapidly growing cancerous tumor of the brain
glioblastoma
cancerous tumor of the brain
glioma
cancerous tumor originating in blood vessels
hemangiosarcoma
form of lymphoma that occurs in children and young adults; the two kinds of lymphoma are Hodgkin disease (named after Dr. Thomas Hodgkin, who first recognized it in 1832) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Hodgkin disease
first virus known to cause cancer in humans
human T-cell leukemia lymphoma virus
excessive formation and growth of normal cells
hyperplasia
process of preventing formation of the immune response
immunosuppression
treatment of disease by active, passive, or adoptive immunity
immunotherapy
pertaining to the process of extending or growing into normal tissue; invasive
infiltrative
enclosed within a site; refers to tumor cells that remain at a site and have not invaded adjacent tissue
in situ
pertaining to the spreading process of a malignant tumor into normal tissue
invasive
malignant neoplasm that causes violaceous (purplish discoloration) vascular lesions and general lymphadenopathy; often seen in patients who have AIDS
Kaposi sarcoma
cancerous tumor of smooth muscle tissue
leiomyosarcoma
wound; an injury, altered tissue or a single infected patch of skin
lesion
cancer of the blood characterized by overproduction of leukocytes; cancer of the blood forming tissues
leukemia
white, thickened patches formed on the mucous membranes of the inner cheeks, gums, or tongue that tend to become cancerous
leukoplakia
megavoltage machine used in administering external radiation
linear accelerator
cancerous tumor of fat cells
liposarcoma
abnormal cells found in the lobules of the breast; this condition seldom becomes invasive cancer; however, having lobular carcinoma in situ increase the risk of developing cancer in either breast
lobular carcinoma in situ
cancerous tumor of lymphatic vessels
lymphangiosarcoma
cancerous tumor of lymphoid tussue
lymphoma
cancerous disease of lymphatic tissue; also called lymphoblastoma
lymphosarcoma
pertaining to a bad wandering; refers to the spreading process of cancer from one area of the body to another
malignant
cancerous tumor of the brain, the fourth ventricle, and the cerebellum
medulloblastoma
literally mean a black tumor; a melanoma is a cancerous tumor
melanoma
cancerous tumor originating in the arachnoidal (meninges) membrane of the brain
meningioma
spreading process of cancer from a primary site to a secondary site; similarly invasive growth is the spreading process of a malignant tumor into adjacent normal tissue
metastasis
inflammation of the oral mucosa caused by exposure to high energy beams delivered by radiation therapy
mucositis
agent that causes a change in the DNA of an organism
mutagen
process by which the DNA is changed
mutation
substance produced by fungus growing in food or animal feed that, if ingested can cause cancer
mycotoxin
tumor arising in the hematopoietic portion of the bone marrow
myeloma
cancerous timor of muscle tissue
myosarcoma
new tissue formed, such as an abnormal growth or tumor
neoplasms
cancerous tumor of the kidney; also called Wilms tumor; most often found in children 2-3 years of age
nephroblastoma
cancerous tumor composed chiefly of neuroblasts; can appear anywhere but usually in the abdomen as a swelling; most often diagnosed during the first year of life
neuroblastoma
cancerous tumor composed chiefly of neuroglial cells and located in the cerebrum
oligodendroglioma
cancer causing genes; genes in a virus that can induce tumor formation
oncogenes
pertaining to the potential formation of tumors, especially cancerous ones
oncogenic
cancerous tumor composed of osseous (bone) tissue
osteogenic sarcoma
Paget disease of the breast (also called mammary Paget disease) a rare form of breast cancer; the condition was originally reported in 1974 by Sir James Paget, an English surgeon who also described an unrelated skeletal condition known as Paget disease of the bone; these disorders are distinct disease entities that are medically unrelated; Paget disease of the breast is characterized by inflammatory "eczema like" changes of the nipple that may extend to involve the areola
Paget disease of the breast
pertaining to a form of treatment to relieve or alleviate symptoms without curing
palliative
in radiation therapy, refers to the skin area of entry for the radiation
port
pertaining to changes or conditions before the onset of cancer
precancerous
original, initial, or principal site
primary site
process of rapid production; growth by multiplying
proliferation
process of lessening the severity of symptoms; time when symptoms of a disease are controlled
remission
cancerous tumor of the lymphatic system
reticulosarcoma
cancerous tumor of the retina; although relatively rare, it accounts for 5% of childhood blindness
retinoblastoma
cancerous tumor originating from the same embryonic cells that develop into striated muscles; it is the most common soft tissue sarcoma in children
rhabdomyosarcoma
nucleic acid found in all living cells; responsible for protein synthesis
ribonucleic acid
cancerous tumor arising in connective tissue
sarcoma
second site usually derived from the primary site
secondary site
cancerous tumor of the testis
seminoma
excessive fluid in the pericardial sac surrounding the heart; can be caused by advanced cancer of the lung or a tumor that has metastasized to the pericardium
tamponade
radiation therapy in which the radioactive substance is at a distance from the body area being treated
teletherapy
malignant teratoma is a type of cancer made of cysts that contain one or more of the three layers of cells found in a developing embryo; it can contain embryonic tissues of hair, teeth, bone, or muscle; a tertoma may also be a benign tumor
teratoma
tumor of the thymus gland
thymoma
pertaining to the inability to open the moth fully; occurs in patients with oral cancer who undergo a combination of surgery and radiation therapy
trismus
abnormal growth, swelling, or enlargement
tumor
pertaining to a virus, which means poison in Latin
viral
cancerous tumor of the kidney occurring mainly in children
Wilms tumor
condition of dryness of the mouth; oral change caused by radiation therapy or chemotherapy
xerostomia
ACS
American Cancer Society
ACA
adenocarcinoma
AFP
alpha fetoprotein
ALL
acute lymphocytic leukemia
AML
acute myeloid leukemia
AT/RT
atypical teratoid rhabdoid tumor
BCC
basal cell carcinoma
BSE
breast self examination
Bx
biopsy
CA
cancer
CA-125
cancer antigen 125
CEA
carcinoembryonic antigen
chemo
chemotherapy
CIS
carcinoma in situ
CLL
chronic lymphocytic leukemia
CML
chronic myelocytic leukemia
CT
computed tomography
DCIS
ductal carcinoma in situ
ERT
external radiation therapy
ETS
environmental tobacco smoke
FNA
fine needle aspiration
hCG
human chorionic gonadotropin
HD
Hodgkin disease
H&E
hematoxylin and eosin
HER-2/neu
human epidermal growth factor receptor 2
HI-ART
highly integrated adaptive radiotherapy
HTLV
human T cell leukemia lymphoma virus
IMRT
intensity modulated radiation therapy
IRT
internal radiation therapy
KS
Kaposi sarcoma
LCIS
lobular carcinoma in situ
MPD
mammary Paget disease
MRI
magnetic resonance imaging
NCI
national cancer institute
NHGRI
national human genome research institute
NHL
non-Hodgkin lymphoma
NIH
national institutes of health
PDT
photodynamic therapy
PSA
prostate specific antigen
St
stage of disease
TC
testicular cancer
TSE
testicular self examination
VAD
vacuum assisted needle biopsy device
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