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Governing States and Localities Final

Terms in this set (352)

Federalism
Political system in which national and regional governments share powers and are considered independent equals.
Unitary System
Political system in which power is concentrated in a central government.
Confederacy
Political system in which power is concentrated in regional governments.
Representative Government
A form of government in which citizens exercise power indirectly by choosing representatives to legislate on their behalf.
Enumerated Powers
Grants of authority explicitly given by the Constitution
National Supremacy Clause
Constitutional clause that states that federal law takes precedence over all other laws.
Preemption
The process of the federal government overriding areas regulated by state law.
Exclusive Powers
Powers given by the Constitution solely to the federal government.
Concurrent Powers
Powers that both federal and state governments can exercise. These include the power to tax, borrow, and spend.
Implied Powers
Broad, but undefined, powers given to the federal government by the Constitution.
General Welfare Clause
Constitutional clause that gives Congress an implied power through the authority to provide for the "general welfare."
Necessary and Proper Clause
Constitutional clause that gives Congress an implied power through the right to pass all laws considered "necessary and proper" to carry out the federal government's responsibilities as defined by the Constitution.
Full Faith and Credit Clause
Constitutional clause that requires states to recognize each other's public records and acts as valid.
Privileges and Immunities Clause
Constitutional clause that prohibits states from discriminating against citizens of other states.
Bill of Rights
The first ten amendments to the Constitution, which set limits on the power of the federal government and set out the rights of individuals and the states.
Tenth Amendment
Constitutional amendment guaranteeing a broad, but undefined, set of powers be reserved for the states and the people.
Fourteenth Amendment
Constitutional amendment that prohibits states from depriving individuals of the rights and privileges of citizenship and requires states to provide due process and equal protection guarantees.
Dual Federalism
The idea that state and federal governments have separate and distinct jurisdictions and responsibilities.
State's Rights
The belief that states should be free to make their own decisions with little interference from the federal government.
Compact Theory
The idea that the Constitution represents an agreement among sovereign states to form a common government.
Nullification
The process of a stat's rejecting a federal law and making it invalid within state borders
Secession
The process of a government or political jurisdiction withdrawing from a political system or alliance.
Nation-Centered Federalism
The belief that the nation is the basis of the federal system and that the federal government should take precedence over the states.
State-Centered Federalism
The belief that states are the basis of the federal system and that state governments should take precedence over the federal government.
Cooperative Federalism
The notion that it is impossible for state and national governments to have separate and distinct jurisdictions and that both levels of government must work together.
Grants-in-Aid
Cash appropriations given by the federal government to the states.
Centralized Federalism
The notion that the federal government should take the leading role in setting national policy, with state and local governments helping to implement the policies.
Categorical Grants
Federal grants-in-aid for specific programs that leave states and localities with the discretion over how to spend the money.
General Revenue Sharing Grants
Federal grants-in-aid given with few constraints, leaving states and localities almost complete discretion over how to spend the money.
Crosscutting Requirements
Constraints that apply to all federal grants.
Crossover Sanctions
Federal requirements mandating that grant recipients pass and enforce certain laws or regulations as a condition of receiving funds.
Unfunded Mandates
Federal laws that direct state action but provide no financial support to that action.
New Federation
The belief that states should receive more power and authority and less money from the federal government.
Block Grants
Federal grants-in-aid given for general policy areas that leave states and localities with side discretion over how to spend the money within the designated policy area.
Ad Hoc Federalism
The process of choosing a state-centered or nation-centered view of federalism on the basis of political or partisan convenience.
Interstate Commerce Clause
Constitutional clause that gives Congress the right to regulate interstate commerce. This clause has been broadly interpreted to give Congress a number of implied powers.
Sovereign Immunity
The right of a government to not be sued without its consent.
Greenhouse Gases
Emissions - primarily carbon dioxide but also other gases such as methane - that are believed to contribute to global warming
Carbon dioxide
A naturally occurring gas, the prevalence of which is increased by the burning of fossil fuels
Clean Air Act
The law, initially enacted in 1970, that provides authority for federal regulation of air pollution
Smog
A type of air pollution; the word comes from the combination of smoke and fog.
Tailpipe Emissions
Greenhouse gases released by cars and other vehicles
Renewable Energy
Power generated using natural sources that can be replenished, such as wind and solar energy, as opposed to nonrenewable fossil fuels
Fracking
A process in which water, sand, and chemicals are pumped into the ground to enable the extraction of natural gas and oil
Sprawl
The rapid growth of a metropolitan area, typically as a result of specific types of zoning and development
Zoning Laws
Regulations that control how land can be used
New Urbanism
A design movement that seeks to promote walkable communities through transit-oriented, mixed-use development
Building Codes
Rules regarding the standards for structures; they mainly have to do with safety issues but sometimes also include requirements for things such as exterior pedestrian walkways
Weatherization
The practice of protecting buildings from the elements (for example, by installing insulation) both to improve their habitability and to cut down on energy use
Green Jobs
Occupations that contribute to environmental sustainability
Adaptation
Taking steps to prepare for and deal with the effects of climate change
Mitigation
Reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases and other steps taken to curb the forces that cause climate change
Public Health
Area of medicine that addresses the protection and improvement of citizen health and hygiene through the work of government agencies
Pandemic
An outbreak of a disease that spreads across a large geographical area and affects a high proportion of the population
Obesity
The medical condition of being excessively overweight; defined as having a body mass index (BMI) of more than 25
Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)
The original federal assistance program for women and their children, started under Roosevelt's New Deal
Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF)
The next-generation welfare program (passed in 1996) that provides federal assistance in the form of block grants to states, which have great flexibility in designing their programs
Abstinence
Refraining from sexual activity, usually intercourse
Medicare
The federal health insurance program for elderly citizens
Entitlement Program
A government-run program that guarantees unlimited assistance to those who meet its eligibility requirements, no matter how high the cost
Poverty Line, or Poverty Threshold
An annual income level, set by the federal government, below which families cannot afford basic necessities.
Managed Care
An arrangement for the provision of healthcare whereby an agency acts as an intermediary between consumers and healthcare providers
State Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP)
A joint federal-state program designed to expand healthcare coverage to children whose parents earned income above the poverty line but still were too poor to afford insurance.
Reentry Program
A program designed to ease released prisoners' return to society and thus prevent recidivism
Probation
Supervised punishment in the community
Common Law
Law composed of judges' legal opinions that reflects community practices and evolves over time
Verdict
A jury's finding in a trial
Deterrence Theory
A theory advanced by criminologists that harsh penalties will deter people from committing crimes.
Parole
Supervised early release from prison
Professional Model of Policing
An approach to policing that emphasizes professional relations with citizens, police independence, police in cars, and rapid responses to calls for service
Community Policing
An approach that emphasizes police officers' forming relationships with neighborhood residents and engaging with them in collaborative problem solving
Broken Windows Policing
Policing that emphasizes maintaining order, based on the theory that disorder unattended breeds crime
Superpredators
Ultraviolent youth who experts at one time predicted would further drive up the nation's crime rate
Supermax Security Prison
A high-security prison designed to house violent criminals
Recidivism
The tendency of criminals to relapse into criminal behavior and be returned to prison
Drug Court
A special tribunal that offers nonviolent drug offenders a chance at reduced or dismissed charges in exchange for their undergoing treatment or other rehabilitation; an alternative forum for sentencing nonviolent drug offenders
Community, or Restorative, Justice Movement
A movement that emphasizes nontraditional punishment, such as community service
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)
Federal law enacted in January 2002 that introduced new accountability measures for elementary and secondary schools in all states receiving federal education aid.
Common School
In a democratic society, a school in which children of all income levels attend at taxpayer expense.
State Board of Education
Top policymaking body for education in each of the fifty states, usually consisting of appointees selected by the governor.
Back to Basics
A movement against modern education "fads" advocating a return to an emphasis on traditional core subjects such as reading, writing, and arithmetic
Standards
In education, fixed criteria for learning that students are expected to reach in specific subjects by specific grade years.
High-Stakes Standardized Testing
Testing of elementary and secondary students in which poor results can mean either that students fail to be promoted or that the school loses its accreditation.
Department of Education
A state-level agency responsible for overseeing public education.
Teacher Licensure Procedures
The processes states use to qualify teacher candidates to work in school district; requirements for licensing typically include attainment of certain academic degrees, work experience, and adequate performance on adult standardized tests.
Accreditation
A certification process in which outside experts visit a school or college to evaluate whether it is meeting minimum quality standards
Local Education Agency (LEA)
A school district which may encompass a city, a county, or a subset thereof
School District
A local administrative jurisdiction that hires staff and reports to a school board on the management of area public schools
School Board
An elected or appointed body that determines major policies and budgets for a school district
Capital Outlays
A category of school funding that focuses on long-term improvements to physical assets.
Successful Schools Model
An education model that uses observed spending levels in the highest-performing schools as the basis from which to calculate necessary spending in other, lower-performing schools
Criterion-Referenced Test
A standardized test designed to gauge a student's level of mastery of a given set of materials.
Norm-Referenced Test
A standardized test designed to measure how a student's mastery of a set of materials compares with that of a specially designed sampling of students determined to be the national "norm" for that age group
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
The only regularly conducted, independent survey of what a nationally representative sample of students in grades four, eight, and twelve know and can do in various subjects; known as "the nations' report card."
Trend in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)
A regularly updated study launched by the United States in 1995 that compares the performance in science and mathematics of students in forty-six countries.
General Equivalency Diploma (GED) Program
A program offering a series of tests that an individual can take to qualify for a high school equivalency certificate or diploma.
Site-Based Management
A movement to increase freedom for building administrators such as school principals to determine how district funds are spent at individual schools
Standards Movement
An effort to create benchmarks of adequate learning in each subject for each grade level so that students and teachers can be evaluated on the mastery of this predetermined material
Goals 2000
The Educate America Act, signed into law in March 1994, which provided resources to states and communities to ensure that all students could reach their full potential.
Kentucky Education Reform Act
The 1990 law passed in response to court findings of unacceptable disparities among schools in Kentucky, considered the most comprehensive state school reform act to date
Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Federal law passed in 1965 as part of President Johnson's Great Society initiative; steered federal funds to improve local schools, particularly those attended primarily by low-income and minority students
Charter Schools
Public schools, often with unique themes, managed by teachers, principals, social workers, or nonprofit groups. The charter school movement was launched in the early 1990s
School Voucher Movement
Movement dating to the 1950s to allow taxpayer dollars to be given to families to use at whatever public, private, or parochial schools they choose.
Homeschooling
The education of children in the home; a movement to grant waivers from state truancy laws to permit parents to teach their own children
Teachers' Unions
Public-sector unions that organize employees at all educational levels to form state and local affiliates. In the United States, the two major teachers' unions are the National Education Association and the American Federation of Teachers, both headquartered in Washington, D.C.
National PTA
Umbrella organization founded in 1897 consisting of state-based and school based parent-teacher associations of volunteers who work to improve and support schools
Metropolitan Area
A populous region typically comprising a city and surrounding communities that have a high degree of social and economic integration.
Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA)
An area with a city of 50,000 or more people together with adjacent urban communities that have strong ties to the central city.
Megaregion
An urban area made up of several large cities and then surrounding urban areas that creates an interlocking economic and social system.
Edgeless Cities
Office and retail complexes without clear boundaries
Sprawl
The rapid growth of the metropolitan area, typically as a result of specific types of zoning and development.
Zoning Laws
Regulations that control how land can be used.
Low-Density Development
Development practices that spread (rather than concentrate) populations across land.
Leapfrog Development
Development practices in which new developments jump - or leapfrog - over established developments, leaving undeveloped or underdeveloped land between developed areas.
Impact Fees
Fees that municipalities charge builders of new housing of commercial developments to help offset the costs of extending services.
Car-Dependent Living
A situation in which owning a car for transportation is a necessity; an outcome of low-density development.
White Flight
A demographic trend in which the middle and upper classes leave central cities for predominantly white suburbs.
Exurbs
Municipalities in rural areas that ring suburbs. They typically serve as bedroom communities for the prosperous, providing rural homes with easy access to urban areas.
Reform Perspective
An approach to filling gaps in service and reducing redundancies in local governments that calls for regional-level solutions.
Urban Growth Boundary (UGB)
A border established around urban areas that is intended to control the density and type of development.
Regional Council
A planning and advisory organization whose members include multiple local governments. Regional councils often are used to administer state and federal programs that target regions.
Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO)
A regional organization that decides how federal transportation funds are allocated within that regional area.
Smart Growth
Environmentally friendly development practices, particularly those that emphasize more efficient infrastructure and less dependence on automobiles.
Interjurisdictional Agreement (KJA)
A formal or informal agreement between two or more local governments to cooperate on a program or policy.
City-County consolidation
The merger of separate local governments in an effort to reduce bureaucratic redundancy and service inefficiencies.
Annexation
The legal incorporation of one jurisdiction or territory into another.
Gentrification
The physical rehabilitation of urban areas, which attracts investment from developers and drives up property values.
Public Choice Model
A model of politics that views governments and public services in market terms; governments are seen as producers of public services and citizens are seen as consumers.
Tiebout Model
A model of local government based on market principles wherein a metro area is made up of a series of micropolitical jurisdictions that, on the basis of their services and costs, attract or repel certain citizens.
Rural Flight
The movement of youth and the middle class from rural areas to more urban areas.
Municipalities
Political jurisdictions, such as cities, villages, or towns, incorporated under state law to provide governance to defined geographical areas; more compact and more densely populated than counties.
Counties
Geographical subdivisions of state government.
County Commission System
A form of county governance in which executive, legislative, and administrative powers are vested in elected commissioners.
Council-Executive System
A form of county governance in which legislative powers are vested in a country commission and executive powers are vested in an independently elected executive.
Commission-Administrator System
A form of county governance in which executive and legislative powers reside with an elected commission, which hires a professional executive to manage the day-to-day operations of government.
Cities
Incorporated political jurisdictions formed to provide self-governance to particular localities.
Townships
Local governments whose powers, governance structure, and legal status vary considerably from state to state. In some states, townships function as general-purpose municipalities; in others, they are geographical subdivisions of counties with few responsibilities and little power.
Mayor
The elected chief executive of a municipality
City Council
A municipality's legislature.
City Manager
An official appointed to be the chief administrator of a municipality
Mayor-Council System
A form of municipal governance in which there is an elected executive and an elected legislature.
Strong Mayor System
A municipal government in which the mayor has the power to perform the executive functions of government.
Weak Mayor System
A municipal government in which the mayor lacks true executive powers, such as the ability to veto council decisions or appoint department heads.
Wards
Divisions of municipalities, usually representing electoral districts of the city council.
Council-Manager System
A form of municipal governance in which the day-to-day administration of government is carried out by a professional administrator.
City Commission System
A form of municipal governance in which executive, legislative, and administrative powers are vested in elected city commissioners.
Town Meeting Form of Government
A form of governance in which legislative powers are held by the local citizens
Special District
A local governmental unit created for a single purpose, such as water distribution
Dillon's Rule
The legal principle that says local governments can exercise only the powers granted to them by state government.
Home Rule
The right of a locality to self-government, usually granted through a charter.
Charter
A document that outlines the powers, organization,, and responsibilities of a local government.
General Act Charter
A charter that grants powers, such a s home rule, to all municipal governments within a state.
Special Act Charter
A charter that grants powers, such as home rule, to a single municipal government.
Ward, or District, Election
An election in which voters in a municipal ward vote for a candidate to represent them on a council or commission.
At-Large Election
An election in which city or county voters vote for council or commission members from any part of the jurisdiction.
Bureaucracy
Public agencies and the programs and services that they implement and manage.
Bureaucrats
Employees of public agencies
Policy Implementation
The process of translating the express wishes of government into action
Street-Level Bureaucrat
A lower-level agency employee who actually takes the actions that represent law or policy
Rulemaking
The process of translating laws into written instructions on what public agencies will or will not do.
Contracting Out
Government hiring of private or nonprofit organizations to deliver public goods or services.
Professionalization
The rewarding of jobs in a bureaucratic agency based on applicants' specific qualifications and merit.
Spoils System
A system under which an electoral winner has the right to decide who works for public agencies.
Patronage
The process of giving government jobs to partisan loyalists.
Neutral Competence
The idea that public agencies should be the impartial implementers of democratic decisions.
Merit System
A system used in public agencies in which employment and promotion are based on qualifications and demonstrated ability; such a system blends very well with the organizational characteristics of bureaucracy.
Collective Bargaining
A process in which representatives of labor and management meet to negotiate pay and benefits, job responsibilities, and working conditions.
Seniority
The length of time a worker has spent in a position.
Affirmative Action
A set of policies designed to help organizations recruit and promote employees who are members of disadvantaged groups.
Representative Bureaucracy
The idea that public agencies that reflect the diversity of the communities they serve will be more effective.
Activist Judge
A judge who is said to act as an independent policymaker by creatively interpreting a constitution or statue.
Criminal Case
A legal case brought by the state intending to punish a violation of the law.
Civil Case
A legal case that involves a dispute between private parties
Trial Court
The first level of the court system
Settlement
A mutual agreement between parties to end a civil case before going to trial.
Plea Bargain
An agreement in which the accused in a criminal case admits guilt, usually in exchange for a promise that a particular sentence will be imposed.
Appeal
A request to have a lower court's decision in a case reviewed by a higher court.
Intermediate Appellate Court
A court that reviews court cases to find possible errors in their proceedings.
State Supreme Court
The highest level of appeals court in a state.
Precedent
In law, the use of the past to determine current interpretation and decision making
Court of First Instance
The court in which a case is introduced and nothing has been determined yet.
Bench Trial
A trial in which no jury is present and the judge decides the facts as well as the law.
General Jurisdiction Trial Court
A court that hears any civil or criminal cases that have not been assigned to a special court.
Limited, or Special Jurisdiction, Trial Court
A court that hears cases that are statutorily limited by either the degree of seriousness or the types of parties involved.
Prejudicial Error
An error that affects the outcome of a case.
Discretionary Jurisdiction
The power of a court to decide whether or not to grant review of a case.
Mandatory Jurisdiction
The requirement that a court hear every case presented before it
En Banc
Appeals court sessions in which all the judges hear a case together.
Panel
A group of (usually) three judges who sit to hear cases in a state court of appeals.
Retention Election
an election in which a judge runs uncontested and voters are asked to vote yes or no on the question of whether they wish to retain the judge in office for another term.
Pure Appointive System
A judicial selection system in which the governor appoints judges alone, without preselection of candidates by a nominating commission.
Prosecutor
A government official and lawyer who conducts criminal cases on behalf of the people.
Public Defender
A government lawyer who provides free legal services to persons accused of crimes who cannot afford to hire lawyers.
Legislative Overcriminalization
The tendency of government to make a crime out of anything the public does not like.
Indictment
A formal criminal charge
Grand Jury
A group of between sixteen and twenty-three citizens who decide if a case should go to trial; if the grand jury decides that it should, an indictment is issued.
Jury Nullification
A jury's returning a verdict of "not guilty" even though jurists believe the defendant is guilty. By doing so, the jury cancels out the effect of a law that the jurors believe is immoral or was wrongly applied to the defendant.
Felony
A serious crime, such as murder or arson.
Misdemeanor
A less serious crime, such as shoplifting
Assigned Counsel
Private lawyers selected by the courts to handle particular cases and paid from public funds.
Contract Attorney
A private attorney who enters into an agreement with a state, country, or judicial district to work on a fixed-fee basis per case or for a specific length of time.
Liability
A legal obligation or responsibility
Voir Dire
The interviewing and examination of potential jurors by the attorneys for both sides of a case.
For Cause Challenge
A lawyer's asking the judge to excuse a potential juror because the individual appears to be biased or unable to be fair.
Peremptory Challenge
A lawyer's dismissal of a potential juror for any reason except race or gender.
Indeterminate Sentencing
The sentencing of an offender, by a judge, to a minimum and a maximum amount of time in prison, with a parole board deciding how long the offender actually remains in prison.
Determinate Sentencing
The sentencing of an offender, by a judge, to a specific amount of time in prison depending on the crime.
Mandatory Minimum Sentence
The shortest sentence that an offender may receive upon conviction for a certain offense. The court has no authority to impose a shorter sentence.
Habitual Offender Laws
Statutes imposing harsher sentences on offenders who previously have been sentenced for crimes.
Truth-in-Sentencing Laws
Laws that give parole boards less authority to shorten sentences for good behavior by specifying the proportion of a sentence an offender must serve before becoming eligible for parole.
Recidivism
A return to, or relapse into, criminal behavior.
Rocket Docket
Fast-tracked cases that often have limited, specific deadlines for specific court procedures.
Magistrate
A local official or attorney granted limited judicial powers.
Recusal
The disqualification of a judge because of an actual or perceived bias or conflict of interest calling the judge's impartiality into question.
Veto
The power to reject a proposed law.
Supermajority Vote
A legislative vote of much more than a simple majority, for instance, a vote by two-thirds of a legislative chamber to override a governor's veto.
Formal Powers
The powers explicitly granted to a governor according to state law, such as being able to veto legislation and to appoint heads of state agencies.
Informal Powers
The things a governor is able to do, such as command media attention and persuade party members, based on personality or position, not on formal authority.
Appointment Powers
A governor's ability to pick individuals to run state government, such as cabinet secretaries.
Bully Pulpit
the platform from which a high-profile official, such as governor or president, commands considerable public and media attention by virtue of holding office.
Impeachment
A process by which the legislature can remove executive branch officials, such as the governor, or judges from office for corruption or other reasons.
Recall Election
A special election allowing voters to remove an elected official from office before the end of his or her term.
Executive Orders
Rules or regulations with the force of law that governors can create directly under the statutory authority given them.
Majority Rule
The process in which the decision of a numerical majority is made binding on a group.
Coalition Building
The assembling of an alliance of groups to pursue common goal or interest.
Logrolling
The practice in which a legislator gives a colleague a vote on a particular bill in return for that colleague's vote on another bill to be considered later.
Filibuster
A debate that under U.S. Senate rules can drag on, blocking final action on the bill under consideration and preventing other bills from being debated.
Rider
An amendment to a bill that is not central to the bill's intent.
Committee
A group of legislators who have the formal task of considering and writing bills in a particular issue area.
District
The geographical area represented by a member of a legislature.
Constituents
Residents of a district
Compromise
The result when there is no consensus on a policy change or spending amount but legislators find a central point on which a majority can agree.
Representation
Individual legislators acting as the voices of their constituencies within the house of representatives or senate.
Constituent Service
The work done by legislators to help residents in their voting districts
Casework
The work undertaken by legislators and their staffs in response to requests for help from constituents
Incumbent
A person holding office.
Oversight
The legislature's role in making sure that the governor and executive branch agencies are properly implementing the laws.
Caucus
All the members of a party - Republican or Democrat - within a legislative chamber. Also refers to meetings of members of a political party in a chamber.
Rank-and-File Members
Legislators who do not hold leadership positions or senior committee posts
Delegates
Legislators who primarily see their role as voting according to their constituents' beliefs as they understand them.
Trustees
Legislators who believe they were elected to exercise their own judgment and to approach issues accordingly.
Professionalization
The process of providing legislators with the resources they need to make politics their main career, such as making their positions full-time or providing them with full-time staff.
Apportionment
The allotting od districts according to population shifts. The number of congressional districts that a state has may be reapportioned every ten years, following the national census.
Redistricting
The drawing of new boundaries for congressional and state legislative districts, usually following a decennial census.
Gerrymanders
Districts clearly drawn with the intent of pressing partisan advantage at the expense of other considerations.
Malapportionment
A situation in which the principle of equal representation is violated.
Majority-Minority District
A district in which members of a minority group, such as African Americans or Hispanics, make up a majority of the population or electorate.
Super Pac
A political action committee that can spend unlimited funds on behalf of a political candidate but cannot directly coordinate its plans with that candidate.
Polarization
A split among elected officials or an electorate along strictly partisan lines.
Primary Election
an election that determines a party's nominees for offices in a general election against other parties' nominees.
Establishment
The nexus of people holding power over an extended period of time, including top elected officials, lobbyists, and party strategists.
Political Action Committee
A group formed for the purpose of raising money to elect or defeat political candidates. PACs traditionally represent business, union, or ideological interests.
Political Parties
Organizations that nominate and support candidates for elected offices.
Interest Groups
Individuals, corporations, or associations that seek to influence the actions of elected and appointed public officials on behalf of specific companies or causes.
Factional Splits, or Factions.
Groups that struggle to control the message within a party; for example, a party may be split into competing regional factions.
Swing Voters
Individuals who are not consistently loyal to candidates of any one party. They are true independents whose allegiance is fought for in every election.
Candidate-Centered Politics
Politics in which candidates promote themselves and their own campaigns rather than relying on party organizations.
Voter Identification
When a voter identifies strongly with one of the major parties, he or she is considered a Democrat or a Republican; many voters, however, are considered weakly aligned with either major party.
Responsible Party Model
The theory that political parties offer clear policy choices to voters, try to deliver on those policies when they take office, and are held accountable by voters for the success or failure of those policies.
Political Machines
Political organizations controlled by small numbers of people and run for partisan ends. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries these organizations controlled party nominations for public office and rewarded supporters with government jobs and contracts.
Patronage
The practice of elected officials or party leaders handing out jobs to their friends and supporters rather than hiring people based on merit.
Nonpartisan Ballot
A ballot that does not list candidates by political party; this type of ballot is still often used in local elections.
General Election
A decisive election in which all registered voters cast ballots for their preferred candidates for a political office.
Party Convention
A meeting of party delegates called to nominate candidates for office and establish party agendas.
Closed Primary
A nominating election in which only voters belonging to that party may participate. Only registered Democrats can vote in a closed Democratic primary, for example.
Crossover Voting
Members of one party voting in another party's primary. This practice is not allowed in all states.
Open Primary
a nominating election that is open to all registered voters regardless of their party affiliations.
Runoff Primary
An election held if no candidate receives a majority of the vote during the regular primary. The two top finishers face off again in a runoff to determine the nominee for the general election. Such elections are held only in some states, primarily in the South.
Dealignment
The lack of nationwide dominance by any one political party
Realignment
The switching of popular support from one party to another.
Independent Expenditures
Funds spent on ad campaigns or other political activities that are run by a party or an outside group without the direct knowledge or approval of a particular candidate for office.
Soft Money
Money not subject to federal regulation that can be raised and spent by state political parties. A 2002 law banned the use of soft money in federal elections.
Ticket Splitting
Voters' or districts' voting for different parties' nominees for different offices - for instance, supporting a Republican for president while supporting a Democrat for Congress.
Contract Lobbyist
A lobbyist who works for different causes for different clients in the same way that a lawyer represents more than one client.
Cause Lobbyist
A person who works for an organization that tracks and promotes an issue, for example, environmental issues for the Sierra Club or gun ownership rights for the National Rifle Association.
Direct Lobbying
A form of lobbying in which lobbyists deal directly with legislators to gain their support.
Indirect Lobbying
A form of lobbying in which lobbyists build support for their cause through the media, rallies, and other ways of influencing public opinion, with the ultimate goal of swaying legislators to support their cause.
Plurality
The highest number of votes garnered by any of the candidates for a particular office, but short of an outright majority.
Office Group (Massachusetts) Ballot
A ballot in which candidates are listed by name under the title of the office they are seeking.
Party Column (Indiana) Ballot
A ballot in which the names of candidates are divided into columns arranged according to political party.
Straight Ticket
Originally, a type of ballot that allowed voters to pick all of one party's candidates at one; today, voting a straight ticket refers to voting for all of one party's candidates for various offices - for instance - voting for all Democrats or all Republicans.
Secret (Australian) Ballot
A ballot printed by a state that allows voters to pick and choose among different candidates and party preferences in private.
Blanket Primary
An initial round of voting in which candidates from all parties appear in the same ballot, with the top two vote-getters proceeding on to the general elections.
Voter Turnout
The percentage of voting-eligible citizens who register to vote and do vote.
Nonpartisan Election
An election in which the candidates do not have to declare party affiliation or receive a party's nomination; local offices and elections are often nonpartisan.
Plural Executive System
A state government system in which the governor is not the dominant figure in the executive branch but, instead, is more of a first among equals, serving alongside numerous other officials who are elected to their offices rather than appointed by the governor.
Recall
A way for voters to oust an incumbent politician prior to the next regularly scheduled election; they collect signatures to qualify the recall proposal for the ballot and then vote on the ouster of the politician.
Redistricting
The drawing of new boundaries for congressional and state legislative districts, usually following a decennial census.
Budget Deficit, or Shortfall
Cash shortage that results when the amount of money coming into the government falls below the amount being spent.
Revenues
The money governments bring in, mainly from taxes.
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA)
A $787 billion federal government package intended to stimulate economic growth during the recession of 2008-2009.
User Fees
Charges levied by governments in exchange for services. Such fees constitute a type of hidden tax.
Excise, or Sin, Taxes
Taxes on alcohol, tobacco, and other similar products that are designed to raise revenues and reduce use.
Estate Taxes
Taxes levied on a person's estate or total holdings after that person's death.
Gift Taxes
Taxes imposed on money transfers made during an individual's lifetime.
Sales Taxes
Taxes levied by state and local governments on purchases.
Focused Consumption Taxes
Taxes that do not alter spending habits or behavior patterns and therefore do not distort the distribution of resources.
Regressive Taxes
Taxes levied on all taxpayers, regardless of income or ability to pay; they tend to place proportionately more of a burden on those with lower incomes.
Tax Burden
A measurement of taxes paid as a proportion of income.
Income Taxes
Taxes on wages and interest earned.
Progressive Tax System
A system of taxation in which the rate paid reflects ability to pay.
Severance Taxes
Taxes on natural resources removed from a state.
Insurance Trust Funds
Money collected from contributions, assessments, insurance premiums, and payroll taxes.
Intergovernmental Transfers
Funds provided by the federal government to state governments and by state governments to local governments.
Tax Capacity
A measure of the ability to pay taxes
.Tax Effort
A measure of taxes paid relative to the ability to pay taxes.
Dividend
A payment made to stockholders (or, in Alaska's case, residents) from the interest generated by an investment.
Capital Investments
Investments in infrastructure, such as roads
General Obligation Bonds
Investments secured by the taxing power of the jurisdiction that issues them.
Revenue Bonds
Investments secured by the revenue generated by a state or municipal project.
Municipal Bonds
Bonds issued by states, counties, cities, and towns to fund large projects as well as operating budgets. Income from such bonds is exempt from federal taxes and from state and local taxes for the investors who live in the state where they are issued.
Bonds
Certificates that are evidence of debts on which the issuer promises to pay the holders a specified amount of interest for a specified length of time and to repay the loans on their maturity.
Budget Process
The procedure by which state and local governments assess revenues and set budgets
Fiscal Year
The annual accounting period used by a government.
Balanced Budget
A budge in which current expenditures are equal to or less than income.
Expenditures
Money spent by government
Discretionary Spending
Spending controlled in annual appropriations acts.
Fiscal Federalism
The system by which federal grants are used to fund programs and services provided by state and local governments.
Entitlement
A service that government must provide, regardless of the cost.
Electorate
The population of individuals who can vote.
Judicial Federalism
The idea that the courts determine the boundaries of state-federal relations.
Dual Constitutionalism
A system of government in which people live under two sovereign powers. In the United States, these are the government of their state of residence and the federal government.
Natural Law, or Higher Law
A set of moral and political rules based on divine law and binding on all people.
Constitutional Amendments
Proposals to change a constitution, typically enacted by a supermajority of the legislature or through a statewide referendum.
Pienary Power
Power that is not limited or constrained.
Appropriations Bill
Laws passed by legislatures authorizing the transfer of money to the executive branch.
Colonial Charters
Legal documents drawn up by the British Crown that spelled out how the colonies were to be governed.
Unicameral Legislature
A legislature having only one chamber. Nebraska is currently the only U.S. state with a unicameral legislature.
Separation of Powers
The principle that government should be divided into separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches, each with its own powers and responsibilities.
Bicameral Legislature
A legislature made up of two chambers, typically a house of representatives, or assembly, and a senate.
Franchise
The right to vote
Jim Crow Laws
Legislative measures passed in the last decade of the nineteenth century that sought to systematically separate blacks and whites.
Constitutional Convention
An assembly convened for the purpose of amending or replacing a constitution.
Ratification
A vote of the entire electorate to approve a constitutional change, referendum, or ballot initiative.
Ballot Initiative
A process through which voters directly convey instructions to the legislature, approve a law, or amend the constitution.
Referendum
A procedure that allows the electorate to either accept or reject a law passed by the legislature.
Constitutional Revision Commission
An expert committee formed to assess a constitution and suggest changes.
Judicial Review
The power of courts to assess whether a law is in compliance with the constitution.
Reconstruction
The period following the Civil War when the southern states were governed under the direction of the Union army.
Model Constitution
An expert-approved generic or "ideal" constitution that states sometimes use as a yardstick against which they can measure their existing constitutions.
Line-Item Veto
The power to reject a portion of a bill while leaving the rest intact.
Municipal Charter
A document that establishes operating procedures for a local government.
Home Rule
A form of self-governance granted to towns and cities by the state.
Comparative Method
A learning approach based on studying the differences and similarities among similar units of analysis (such as states).
Variance
The difference between units of analysis on a particular measure.
Sociodemographics
The characteristics of a population, including size, age, and ethnicity.
Political Culture
The attitudes and beliefs broadly shared in a polity about the role and responsibility of government.
Moralistic Culture
A political culture that views politics and government as the means to achieve the collective good.
Individualistic Culture
A political culture that views politics and government as just another way to achieve individual goals.
Traditionalistic Culture
A political culture that views politics and government as the means of maintaining the existing social order.
Laboratories of Democracy
A metaphor that emphasizes the states' ability to engage in different policy experiments without interference from the federal government.
Devolution
The process of taking power and responsibility away from the federal government and giving it to state and local governments.
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