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E&EB 272 Midterm

Terms in this set (77)

Peripheral Nervous System
- Afferent sensory and efferent motor neurons
Somatic Nervous System
- Willful motor nerves
Autonomic Nervous System
- Involuntary smooth muscle nerves
Sympathetic Nerves
- Excitatory function
- Ex: Thoracic nerves
Parasympathetic Nerves
- Inhibitory function
- Ex: Cranial nerves
Krushinsky Problem
- Where did the food go - birds and swinging door
Fovea
- Fold in retina creates inc. spacial acuity
- Some birds have 2 foveae
- Variation in number/position
Cone Oil Droplet Filters
- Contain filtering carotenoid pigments that absorb short wavelengths of cone pigments
- Inc. cone color differentiation by dec. breadth of wavelength sensed by Short, Medium, Long wavelength cones, also lowers sensitivity
- Very short wavelength (UV/V) cone oil droplet has no carotenoids
Evolution of Avian Color Gamut
- Melanins are primitive
- Other mechanisms have each evolved multiple times independently
- Novelties in coloration mechanism evolve to expand the color gamut
Migration
- Regular, predictable mvmts of pop or portions pop during the year
- Allows year-round activity
- Birds can exploit seasonal feeding opp while living in favorable climates
- Costs are potentially great
- Photoperiod, gonad cycles, hormones guide prep for migration
- Proximate factors (weather/food availability) trigger day-to-day departures/refuel stops
- Birds that migrate: Blackburnian Warbler, Arctic Tern
- Seasonal cycles climate/insect abundance
- Local: hummingbirds up/down mountain slopes
- Global: Arctic Tern leave nesting colonies in far N Atlantic/Arctic Oceans for Antarctica
- Faster in spring
- Birds S hemisphere don't migrate as far N as N hemisphere birds migrate S
- Fly at times of day/heights where travel is least costly/safest/most rapid
Dispersal
- Mvmts single indiv among pop
Nomadic/Eruptive
- Mvmts are 'unpredictable' or erratic, non-annual mvmts indiv
Hypotheses of Migration Evolution
- Southern Home Hypothesis
- Dispersal Migration Hypothesis
Southern Home Hypothesis
- Migration starts in "south" or winter range
- Migration evolved to avoid comp for breeding
- Dispersal is derived
Dispersal Migration Hypothesis
- Migration evolves from post-breeding dispersal
- Breeding range is primitive
- Migration favored by seasonality which would support dispersal
Compass
- Universal direction distinguisher
- Sun/star/magnetic
Map
- Cognitive construct of rel pos in space
- Magnetic/olfactory
Bill
- No teeth, so bill fxn food getting, not processing, little saliva/few taste buds
Pharynx
- B/t mouth/esophagus, helps swallow
Esophagus-crop
- Esophagus lines w/ lubricating mucous glands
- Crop - vary size/structure - expanded esophageal section store/soften food, regulate flow through digestive tract
Stomach
- Proventriculus/ventriculus
Proventriculus
- Start of chem digestion, handles food before physical digestion in gizzard
- Most dvped in fish-eaters/raptors, secretes acidic gastric juices from glandular walls - chem envmt for digestion
- Peptic enzyme dissolve bones
- Store oil by-products digestion, regurgitate as food for young, spew at predators/ornithologists
Ventriculus-gizzard
- Large, hard seed-crushing structure or softer bags or miniscule pouches digest leaves
Small/Large Intestines
- Length much longer than body length, shorter in birds feed fruit/meat/insects, long in birds feed seeds/plants/fish
Glandular Organs
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Salivary Glands
- Birds don't salivate much
Pancreas
- Digestive juices can recycle several times from small intestine back to gizzard/proventriculus to break complex fatty acids down
Gall Bladder
- Bile break down wax
Bursa of Fabricius
- Site of hematopoiesis - necessary for B cell dvpt
Cecum (cecae)
- Near end digestive tract, in many birds
- Attach posterior end large intestine, may be paired or single, vary from small/absent to prominent
- Multi-purpose, vitally imp, aid digestion, esp fibrous plant foods
- Bacteria in ceca digest/ferment partly digested foods into usable compounds absorbed through cecal walls, prod antibodies fight disease org, aid absorption water, aid metabolism uric acid into amino acids
Avian Hyoid
- Forms bony tongue (other tetrapods have muscular tongues)
- Evolution may have accompanied evolution beak or loss of teeth
- Left birds evolutionarily silent, require alternative vocal organ - syrinx
Radar Ornithology
- 150 birds/km^3
- Estimate flight speed 26-36 knots low alt, few at 36-50 knots higher alt
Feather Chemistry
- Measure ratio carbon 13 to carbon 12 in plants/animals - deposited in new feathers from food eaten while molting
Diurnal/nocturnal Flight Times (Migration)
- Diurnal: warm rising air currents
- Nocturnal: less predation by hawks/gulls, refuel by day, cooler/more humid night air favor heat loss/water retention, more stable night atmosphere, weaker horizontal wind, less turbulent vertical motion
Fat Storage for Migration
- Migrants eat enormous quantities energy-rich food
- Fat stored in adipose tissues under skin/in muscles/in body cavity, not in heart like human
- Adipose tissue - dynamic sys for synth/storage/release lipids
- Lipaase breaks down fat into free fatty acids/glycerol for use
- Lipase activity - tells capacity muscles for fat metabolism - inc in rel to migratory activity
- If need more fuel than in fat, turn to protein in muscles, organs (except brain/lungs)
- Molecular adaptation in hemoglobin in bar-headed goose migrate over Himalayas - 4 amino acid subst raise oxygen affinity, physiological capacity at high altitudes
Origin of Migration
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Origin of Secondarily Resident Populations
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Evolutionary Change in Wintering and Breeding Grounds
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Adaptations for Migration
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Phylogeny and Migration
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Heritability and Evo of Migration in Blackcap Warbler
- New wintering grounds in UK started 1940s
- Orientation bearing highly heritable
- Ample genetic variation for orientation direction
Optical/Chemical Compass Theory
- Use light sensitive transformation singlet-to-triplet radical pair
Magnetic Compass
- Captured nocturnal migrating thrushes, exposed to eastward shift of altered magnetic field over sunset
- Strong support for Twilight Celestial cues in calibration of magnetic compass
- Dvps before solar compass
Brains
- Birds - clusters not cortical laminae
- Mammals - laminae w/in cortex
Clark's Nutcracker
- Huge memory for seeds
- Pokes bill into ground to loosen soil, inserts seed, rakes soil/grass over, puts pebble on top for camoflage
Food Storage
- Larger hippocampus
Scrub Jays
- Planning for future
- Experiment - 3 compartments, diff mornings placed in compartment w/ or w/o food, received chance store food in either side, stored more food in compartment where experienced hunger
Avian Ear
- 3 sections - external/middle/inner
- No pinnae
- Specialized "auricular" feathers protect hearing organs from air turbulence, allow sound waves in
- Only one bone - stapes/columella
- Structurally simpler than mammals, short basilar memb, no division b/t inner/outer hair cells, simple sys cochlear nerves
- Efficiency same as mammals
- Most birds don't have good hearing, freq range lower, some can detect low/infrasound freq (except owls)
- Owls hear well both vertical/horizontal plane b/c asymmetrical rrangement ears
- Oilbird - cave-dwelling, nocturnal, uses echolocation
Mechanoreception
- Birds sensitive to mech stimulation through senses of mechanoreception
- Tactile reception/equilibrium/barometric pressure
- Highest level in hearing organ
Tactile corpuscle
- Primary source skin sensitivity
- Monitor change muscle tension/proprioception
- Specialized for tactile response, found at ends sheathed nerve fibers
- Herbst corpuscle - largest/most elaborate tactile corpuscle
Herbst Corpuscle
- Largest/most elaborate tactile corpuscle
- Outer multilayered sheath, inner core
- Onion-like layers of outer sheath allow elastic reception, transfer rapid pressure changes
- Inner, cylindrical core - elaborate sensory nerve fiber
- Abundant in sensitive bill tips of sandpipers/snipes - use tactile foraging find small prey in mud, tips woodpecker tongues
- Conc in feather follicles have sensory fxns - filoplumes/bristles
- Numerous in wing joints - help govern wing pos during flight
Olfactory Senses
- Taste - equally/less sensitive than mammals - similar structure but less number
- Smell - based surface epithelium posterior concha of olfactory cavities
- Olfactory comparable to mammals
- Use smell from food to orientation
- Olfactory bulb - small size - but now we know birds can small/use odors in daily routines, fxns can be accommodated by very small amts olfactory tissue
- Threshold odor detection correlated w/ size olfactory bulb rel size cerebrum
- Olfactory bulbs large in nocturnal birds - need nonvisual sensory abilities
- Mediate sexual/foraging behaviors
- Sexual prowess Mallards dep on ability smell female's breeding odors - experimental cutting inhibits courtship/sexual behavior
- Female odors from oil-gland secretions - change in composition during breeding season
- Tube-nosed seabirds locate zooplankton by smell, find nest burrows/mates
Vision
- 3 eyelids - 2 normal, nictitating memb - thin/transparent memb brush off/moisten cornea, like goggles for diving birds
- Small anterior component - cornea/lens; large posterior component - main body; sep by scleral ring compound 12-15 small bones/ossicles
- 2 striated muscles - Crampton's muscle/Brucke's muscle - attach to ossicles, focus on objects
- Lens large/conspicuous
- Pecten - projects from rear surface near optic nerve into large cavity filled w/ vitreous humor - clear substance fills eyes behind lens
- Both cornea/lens change curvature while focusing (mammals only lens)
- Highly dvped anatomy avian retina, light-receptor cells - excellent vision
- Large number cones - daylight receptors of retina - form sharp images
- Foveae - concave depressions high cone density - greatest visual sharpness in humans - one in each eye in center of retina near optic nerve, central fovea deeper/more complex in cell structure in visually acute birds
Pecten
- Large, black pigmented pleated vascularized structure attached to reina near optic nerve, protrude into vitreous humor, almost touch lens, unique
- Fewer folds in nocturnal birds
- Source nutrition/oxygen for retina b/c no blood vessels in eye
- Glucose diffuses out of pecten to eye tissues
- Diffusion aided by turbulence from freq eye mvmts - 'saccades'
- Allows birds reduce vascular supply to surface of retina, reduce interference/obstruction of looking through retinal blood supply
- Causes blind spot/shadow in retina
Color Vision
- Based on visual pigments convert EM energy light into neural energy
- Cones often contain colored oil droplets w/ carotenoid pigments, range from yellow to red - filters against UV light, may also enhance contrast objects against diff bkgds
- High cone densities/visual pigments/colored oil droplets - most capable daylight retina any animal
- Rods - black/white, nocturnal birds
Cone Oil Droplet Filters
- Droplets contain filtering carotenoid pigments absorb wavelengths at short-wavelength side of cone pigments
- Inc cone color differentiation by dec. breath wavelengths sensed by short/medium/long wavelength cones, lower sensitivity
Evolution Avian Color Gamut
- Melanins primitive
- Other mech evolved mult times ind
- Novelties color mech evolve to expand color gamut
- Use UV colors in communication
- Birds use UV colors in com
- During light adaptation, melanosomes RPE favored; dark adaptation, fat spheres move forward create tapetum
Prokinesis
- Ability upper jaw move
Distal Rhynchokinesis
- Ability flex upper beak (far)
Central Rhynchokinesis
- Ability flex upper beak (central)
Flamingo Digestive Specializations
- Fringed inner platelets/lamellae of filter, large spines, main hooks/lamellae of filter
Counter-Current Exchange
- Diffusion exchange of molc/ions/heat b/t 2 flowing fluids more efficient if countercurrent - concurrent flow allows for rapid equilibrium at avg 2 fluids but countercurrent maintains constant diff gradient promote continuous diffusion
Four-Chambered Heart
- Large, like mammals
Counter Current Heat Exchange in Bird Legs
- Control blood flow to reduce heat loss
- Heat carried by arterial blood from body core can be transferred directly to blood returning in veins
Basal Metabolic Rate
- Rate of energy usage necessary maintain body temp at rest
- Fxn ambient temp
Thermal Neutral Zone
- Range of temp over which BMR minimized
Kidneys
- Excrete water/nitrogenous wastes (w/ salt-secreting glands)
- Flat structures sited against fused vertebrae on dorsal wall abdominal cavity - differ structure/fxn from reptiles/mammals
- Urine prod by kidneys mix w/ fecal components in lower intestine, addtnl water reabsorbed as needed
- Water economy - excretion nitrogenous wastes in form uric acid - bird droppings - evolved early history archosaurs
- Excretion nitrogen as urea in aqueous soln requires flushing by large amts water, uric acid can be excreted as semisolid suspension, less water
- Conc nitrogenous wastes, but can't conc salt/electrolytes, rely on nasal salt glaands excrete salt
Vocal Modulation
- Freq Modulation
- Amp Modulation
- Source vs. Post-Source Modulation
Frequency Modulation
- Pitch in hertz
- Memb tension reg by muscle contraction
Amplitude Modulation
- Loudness in decibels
Source vs. Post-Source Modulation
- Control at source or filtering by airway at source
- Post-source - modified anatomy of post-syringeal vocal tract
- Constrains song production
Sonogram
- Spectral analysis freq components of song
2 Voice Vocal Modulation
- Ind control sound prod by 2 sides syrinx
Harmonic Frequencies
- Wave 2 is harmonic of wave 4
- Wavelength is 1/2 of fundamental; freq is twice fundamental
Vocalizations
- Most are innate - dvp w/o soc/envmtl acoustic info
Phylogenetically Independent Origins Vocal Learning in Birds
- 4 ind origins
- Parrots/hummingbirds/oscine passerines/procnias bellbirds
Dialects
- Learned geo variations in song from song learning
- Formed by same cul processes as human lang dialects, may be related to fxnl/envmtl variation
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