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Exam 1 - Political Science

Terms in this set (218)

1492-1815
The Mercantilist Era

(years)
1800's

Period Wars and recessions, but Western Europe's economy grew eightfold.
The Hundred Years' Peace

Pax Britannica

(years)
1914-1945
The Thirty Years' Crisis with crisis, war, and depression

(years)
1945-1990
The Cold War

(years)
1991-present
The post-Cold War era of relative peace and prosperity

(years)
The "world" as a meaningful unit emerged after 1492

Europe dominated beginning in the 1500's
- sought to ensure own political, military power.
- wanted access to markets, resources.
What was the Mercantilist Era?
The use of military power to enrich imperial governments. Military and economic power were complementary (gun and butter).
What is Mercantilism?
State monopolies (Spanish mines, Hudson's Bay Company)

And controls on colonial trade.
Key mechanisms of The Mercantilist Era
competition and struggle for power in Europe

- fight over wealth, power, and influence.
The Mercantilist Era was an economic...
1618-1648

Ended with the Peace of Westphalia and the state system began.
The Thirty Years' WAR

(the mercantilist era)
Effects:
- Stabilized borders,
- Helped resolve religious conflicts,
- Beginning of modern system of states.

Establishing state sovereignty (power)
The Peace of Westphalia

(the mercantilist era)
Security through power, control of markets and resources, and "civilizing missions."
The Mercantilist Era

(Interests)
Zero-sum bargaining among states and subjugation of colonies.
Interactions

(the mercantilist era)
Sovereignty (for empires).
The Mercantilist Era

(Institutions)
Greater links among economies and governments

Relations less belligerent
The Hundred Years' Peace

from 1815-1914...
Convergence of interests: wealth through trade (against mercantilism) and social stability.
(Congress of Vienne against revolutions)

British hegemony and predominance
-Pax Britannica; Latin for "British Peace"
The Hundred Years' Peace

sources of cooperation...
Major monetary system
The Hundred Years' Peace

gold standard...
Increased
The hundred Years' Peace

immigration...
Era of globalization
The hundred years' peace

First...
Slowed with end of mercantilist system
The hundred years' peace

Colonialism...
Africa, Asia, and latin america

Latecomers (germany, japan) scrambled for colonies to improve military position

search for resources and new markets
The hundred years' peace

Burst of territorial expansion after 1870 for...
Economic wealth through trade and investment
The hundred years' peace

(Interests)
Informal diplomacy, cooperation in security and economic affairs, competition for colonies.
The hundred years' peace

(Interactions)
British hegemony (free trade and gold standard) and Concert of Europe
The hundred years' peace

(Institutions)
shattered by two world wars and economic depression
The Thirty Years' Crisis

stability and security...
Military, Diplomatic, Economic, and Political
The Thirty Years' Crisis

thirty years of global conflicts...
two camps
The Thirty Years' Crisis

Europe divides into...
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria
The Thirty Years' Crisis

The rise of Germany and central powers...
Britain, France to the west and Russia to the east
The Thirty Years' Crisis

Allied Powers...
-longer and far costlier than imagined
-at least 15 million killed, including 7 million civilians

The defeat of the Central powers
-Entry of United States, April 1917
-Failure of Germans to cut off British supplies

Treaty of Versailles

League of Nations
World War I

inconclusive and bloody...
-collapse of four great empires of central, eastern and southern Europe (Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, Russian, German)

Empires shattered into pieces
-new "successor states"
-altered social and economic conditions
World War I

European politics shattered...
1920's through 1930's
-economic, political and diplomatic relations unstable
-British and French argue over unsettled issues

Resentment over war debts (imposed by Treaty of Versailles)
Interwar Instability
Downward spiral began in 1929, no country left untouched.
The Global Great Depression
-US industrial production drops by half
-1/3 of labor force unemployed in Germany
-Countries turn inward
some effects of The Global Great Depression
Fascist powers attempt to restore and increase military power and territory.
World War II
Alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan
World War II

The Axis...
U.S., Britain, Soviet Union
World War II

Allies...
25 million military personnel killed;
30 million civilians killed directly;
7 million or more people, mostly Jews, killed in planned genocide

Most of Europe and Japan left in ruins.
Human and economic costs
(WWII)
Security through alliances and expansion, economic self-sufficiency
The Thirty Years' Crisis
WWI
Interwar Instability
The Global Great Depression
WWII

(Interests)
WWI, WWII
The Thirty Years' Crisis
WWI
Interwar Instability
The Global Great Depression
WWII

(Interactions)
Global cooperation collapsed in 1914.
The League of Nations w/o the US attempted to resolve conflicts and failed.
The Thirty Years' Crisis
WWI
Interwar Instability
The Global Great Depression
WWII

(Institutions)
Unlike WWI, results of war were conclusive.
-great powers before war left powerless
The Cold War

results...
US and Soviet Union.
The superpowers emerged...
...but questions remained as to how this two-power world would be ordered.
The Cold War

only remaining military powers...
Soviet Union and US began consolidating Eastern (communist) / Western (capitalist) blocs.
The Cold War

by 1949...
A military alliance, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO); A new economic order, the Bretton Woods System
The Cold War

The Americans created...
A communist alliance.
The Cold War

The soviet Union created...
both the US and Soviet Union had hydrogen and atomic bombs.
-a standoff emerged between the superpowers.
The Cold War

the development of nuclear powers; by 1954...
1962 Cuban missile crisis
Height of Cold War tension
1949 Berlin airlift
Beginning of Cold War tension
Nationalism and governments hostile to foreign trade, investment, and finance.
The Cold War was the rise of...
The process of shedding colonial possessions

Colonial subjects fought to leave the colonial empires

Some colonial powers agreed to demands, others did not

RISE of the Third World
Decolonization (four things)

(The Cold War)
takes power in Soviet in 1985.

moves to improve relations with the US
Mikhail Gorbachev
Eastern Europe, withdraw from Afghanistan, and the Berlin Wall comes down
Soviets relax control in...
1991
The Soviet Union had dissolved by...
Superpowers and allies sought to maximize influence.

Countries seek gains in wealth
The Cold War

(Interests)
Strict bipolar system turned more pluralistic with rise of the Third World.

Coercive diplomacy slowly yields to bargaining.
The Cold War

(Interactions)
US-supported institutions (UN, Bretton Woods) survived.

Soviet-backed institutions lacked legitimacy.
The Cold War

(Institutions)
Collapse of the USSR

More cooperation under UN (Iraqi invasion of Kuwait)
The post-Cold War Era
EU, NAFTA, ASEAN, APEC, etc.
Cross-border trade and investment increases...

(post-Cold War Era)
1990's and early 2000's
Countries begin to globalize in the...

(post-Cold War Era)
More focus on wealth gains through trade and investment; security concerns remain, his of non-state actors
Post Cold-War Era

(interests)
Interdependence;

American leadership often challenged.
Post Cold-War Era

(interactions)
UN, global financial and trade institutions.
Post Cold-War Era

(institutions)
Future trends: predominance of the US, environmental challenges, nuclear proliferation, financial crises, populism and the end of globalization (?) etc...

To the Future: Developing analytical tools that accurately reflect the basic forces at play in world politics.
Historical Overview #2

LOOKING AHEAD
The "is" (empirical) vs the "ought" (normative)

Systematic and rigorous methods

Science is a cumulative process

Findings are generalizable
Social Sciences
(key similarities with natural sciences...)
Political science is not knowing as much as possible about current events (although it helps).

Political science is not punditry.
What political science is NOT...
theories that explain political phenomena using systematic empirical evidence.
Political science is about developing and testing...
Like scientists in other fields, political scientists develop and test theories, using scientific methods.
What makes political science a science?
A simplification of reality, a tentative conjecture about the causes of some phenomenon of interest

Cause and effect...
What is a theory in political science?
Democratic peace theory-
two democracies are less likely to fight one another compared to two autocracies or one democracy vs one autocracy.
Theory example 1
Broad-based democracies are more likely to adopt for-growth policies and provide economic institutions that favor economic development
Theory example 2
an expected causal relationship between variables.

X causes Y (correlation = causation)

Variables are logically connected. The causal logic of a theory (accurate prediction = meaningful explanation)
Theories are statements about...
State the theory

Formulate the theory into concepts, then explain the relationship between these concepts

Infer a testable hypothesis based on the theory

Subject hypothesis to tests
How to test a theory?
Statement about a relationship we expect to observe between measured variables: independent variable (predictor) and dependent variable (outcome)
Hypothesis
positive or negative
Relationship in a hypothesis can be...
their likelihood of voting increases
As an individual's level of education increases...
they are more likely to trade with one another
when countries become more democratic...
the incumbent president is more likely to be reelected.
if the economy is healthy and robust prior to or during a national election...
(Response/Outcome)

Something we hope to explain

Usually in notation Y.
Dependent variable
(Predictor/Feature)

Something we think will provide us with part of the explanation.

Usually in notation X.
Independent Variable
We want to know how the variation/distribution of the outcome Y changes when we intervene to change the predictor X.
What do we want to know about variables?
P[Y|do(X)] ! = P[Y|X]

do(X) indicated an intervention to change the value of X.
Note the difference:
E[Y|do(X)] = E[Y|do(X = 1)] - E[Y|do(X = 0)]
Average causal effect
DV (concept)

economic cooperation
|
|
operationalization
|
|
number of free trade agreements

DV (measured)
IV (concept)

democracy --------theory--------
|
|
operationalization
|
|
political participation as voter turnout

IV (measured) -----hypothesis----
simplifying conditions under which a theory is expected to hold true.

allow us to simplify reality
Assumptions
1. They don't contradict each other
and
2. They are useful when they lead to predictions consistent with reality/empirical evidence

"The proof of the theory is in the testing, not in our judgement of the quality of its assumptions."
Some people are not concerned with the "truthfulness" of assumptions as long as they (two things) ...
"Rising international trade flows are a primary component of globalization. The liberalization of trade policy in many developing countries has helped foster the growth of these flows. Preceding and concurrent with this move to free trade, there has been a global movement toward democracy. We argue that these two trends are related: democratization of the political system reduces the ability of governments to use trade barriers as a strategy for building political support. Political leaders in labor-rich countries may prefer lower trade barriers as democracy increases. Empirical evidence supports our claim about the developing countries from 1970- 99. Regime change toward democracy is associated with trade liberalization, controlling for many factors. Conventional explanations of economic reform, such as economic crises and external pressures, seem less salient. Democratization may have fostered globalization in this period."
exercise #1

(possible essay q?)
After the nonbinding Universal Declaration of Human Rights, many global and regional human rights treaties have been concluded. Critics argue that these are unlikely to have made any actual difference in reality. Others contend that international regimes can improve respect for human rights in state parties, particularly in more democratic countries or countries with a strong civil society devoted to human rights and with transnational links. The findings suggest that rarely does treaty ratification have unconditional effects on human rights. Instead, improvement in human rights is typically more likely the more democratic the country or the more international nongovernmental organizations its citizens participate in. Conversely, in very autocratic regimes with weak civil society, ratification can be expected to have no effect and is sometimes even associated with more rights violation.
exercise #2

(possible essay q?)
Civil wars show a remarkable variation in how long they last. Some end within days; others continue for decades. What explains the extreme intractability of some wars while others are resolved quickly? This article argues that conflicts with multiple actors who must approve a settlement (veto players) are longer because there are fewer acceptable agreements, information asymmetries are more acute, and shifting alliances and incentives to hold out make negotiation more difficult. This veto player approach to explaining variation in civil war duration is tested using a new dataset containing monthly data on all parties to each civil war begun since World War II. The statistical analysis shows a strong correlation between the number of veto players and the duration of civil war.
exercise #3
Examine poorly explained cases, outlying cases.

Method of difference; method of agreement. Participant observation/in-depth interview.

Import from other fields.
Building Theory
1. Logical consistency

2. Empirical accuracy

3. Falsifiability

4. Parsimony

5. Non-spuriousness
Judging Theory (5 things)
The assumptions do not contradict one another.

"If A then B, but also if A then not B, and, maybe, if not A then B."

The predictions follow logically from the assumptions

A theory is logically "true" or "false" based on its internal logic/consistency
Logical Consistency
"Since the desire to attain a maximum of power is universal, all nations must always be afraid that their own miscalculations and the power increases of other nations might add up to an inferiority for themselves which they must at all costs try to avoid. ... The status quo nations, which by definition are dedicated to peaceful pursuits and want only to hold what they have, will hardly be able to keep pace with the dynamic and rapid increase in power characteristic of a nation bent upon imperialistic expansion."
Logical Consistency Example:
Accurate predictions about real world behavior.

A theory is "correct" or "incorrect" based whether it makes accurate or inaccurate predictions

Doesn't need to be accurate 100% of the time
--needs to be better than a random guess or the predictions of the previous theory
Empirical Accuracy
Must be able to state precisely the observations that would prove the theory wrong.
- Imagine a test where the results would lead us to conclude the theory is wrong.
- Not the same as whether the argument is true or false (falsifiable does not equal false)
Falsifiability
Explains a lot of events/facts with a limited set of predictors.
Parsimony
Independent variable has a causal relationship with the dependent variable.
- causation: X -> Y
- reversed causation/endogeneity: Y -> X
Confounding bias: X <- Z -> Y
Collider bias: X -> Z <- Y
Non-spuriousness
Qualitative method or case study: evaluation of a theory through a close look at a single event or a small number of events.

-problem with case selection (selecting on the dependent variable).
-problem with testing probabilistic theories.
Testing Theories
Many theories in IR are probabilistic: hypotheses tell us that there will be a mix of outcomes associated with a change in our independent predictor but that that mix will tend towards the expected change in the dependent variable.

Confidence in our claim becomes stronger with more observations.

Better to test using statistical methods.
Statistical methods...
explains those facts accounted by its rival one plus some more.

without adding a new surplus of unexplained facts.
Comparing theories...

(the better one)
a superior one emerges.
Theories are abandoned mostly only after...
Realism, liberalism, and constructivism.
Three traditional approaches to understanding International Relations
The individual level,

The state level,

The structure level
Levels of Analysis (3 levels)
Main assumption: States' inherent lust for power and desire to dominate

States are concerned with maximizing power

States continually engage in competition and conflict
Classical Realism

(Hans Morgenthau 1948)
AKA, structural realism focuses on the structure of the international system:
-distribution of power, how states are organized, the uncertainty in inter-state relations

The structure of the system determines the goals of states

Goals and structure then determine the outcome.
Neorealism / structural realism

(Kenneth Waltz 1979)
Made in an effort to correct the deficiencies of classical realist theory

Concerned with the causes of war, especially big wars that threaten the survival of great powers.
Why was neorealism/structural realism made?
Anarchic, balanced/unbalanced, bipolar/multipolar.
-dictates the goals and foreign policy choices of states.
Neorealism/structural realism "system structure"
whether a system is stabler unstable.
The structure of the international system majorly determines...
Defensive realism vs Offensive realism
The two kinds of neorealism/structural realism
Anything you do to make yourself more secure makes others less secure. Others will respond by countering your threat.
Defensive realism

(security dilemma)
Real and perceived...

Relative ease of attacking and taking versus defending territory.
Defensive realism

(defense-offense balance)
1) The international system is anarchic

2) Great powers have offensive military capabilities

3) States are uncertain about others' intentions

4) States' primary goal is survival/security

5) States are rational
Offensive Realism: Assumptions

(5 things)
States are principal actors and unitary.
Offensive realism: IMPLICIT assumption
Offensive capabilities and uncertainty now and in future, and anarchy leading to
fear and self help,
power maximization,
and security competition.
(internal balancing vs external balancing)
How is power defined and estimated?

(internal balancing vs external balancing)
Nuclear survivability + the stopping power of water +the
distribution of power leads to
fear and security competition.
Levels of fear
and

how offensive capabilities are defined?
unbalanced multipolarity > balanced multipolarity > bipolarity
Offensive Realism: Distribution of Power...
Bipolarity -> less fear -> stability
How does bipolarity lead to stability?
Global vs regional hegemony
Hegemony is the limit
An agreement between two or more sovereign states concerning the actions each will take in the event that a specified military contingency occurs.

Coordination of actions.
Alliances

(offensive realism)
(external balancing)
Quick, inexpensive ways of accumulating power or security
Purpose of an Alliance
Anarchy and self-help.
Fluidity of Alliance
"there is no overarching authority to prevent others from using violence or the threat of violence to destroy or enslave them."
Offensive Realism: Relative Gains vs Absolute Gains

Anarchy implies that...
maximize relative power;

states sensitive to any erosion of their relative capabilities
Fear and rationality require states to...
Rationality prevents unlimited aggression
Offensive Realism: (Mis)calculated Aggression
Incentives to misrepresent

incomplete information
Miscalculations can occur due to... (two things)
Balancing (internal vs external)

Band-wagoning

Buck-passing
Offensive Realism: State Strategies (three things) - (three "b's)
Parsimonious, influential baseline for other IR theories

Mostly about great powers relations

Limited explanatory domains (terrorism, human rights, economic integration)
Offensive Realism: Evaluation
Neorealism offers little to explain cooperation between states

Liberal theories seek to explain frequent (and extensive) cooperation between states
Liberal Critiques of Neorealism
International system is anarchic

States are rational, and (unitary) self-interested
Liberalism Assumptions
Economic interdependence

International institutions

Democracy
Liberalism Triangulating Peace
International trade raises cost of conflict

International trade promotes economic well-being and satisfaction a peaceful status quo

International trade benefits economically powerful groups within countries

Economically powerful groups tend to have political power to constrain leaders from going to war.
Liberalism: Economic Interdependence
Democracies tend to be rich -> more satisfied

higher political costs of fighting wars for democratic leaders. political accountability.

democratic norms are externalized, leading to mutual trust and respect

more information and transparency
Liberalism: Democratic Peace
Institutions: rules, norms, and procedures around which the expectations of actors converge in a certain issue area (arms control, international trade, environment protection)

International regimes -> international outcome
Liberalism: international institutions
negotiation forums, establish rules and norms, facilitate linkage, monitor compliance, and prescribe punishments.
Institutions provide..
rules and norms that regulate behavior.
cooperation is possible because of...
generally observed patterns of conduct
norms
sets of international laws, rules, and organizations
regimes
wrong because it does not take into account relative gains
Critiques of liberal theories...

neorealist argue that liberal cooperation theory is...
distributional problems

-even if international regimes provide information about cheating, cooperation won't necessarily improve

-not as parsimonious, but provides a better understanding of cooperation.
Critiques of liberal theories...

liberalism is not effective at explaining how to resolve...
State interests/preferences (for power and wealth) aren't fixed and given.

social interaction -> identities -> interests
Constructivism
logic of consequences vs logic of appropriateness
constructivism

international norms -> state action...
communication and discourse
Norm entrepreneurs create norms and change ideas through...
States as the dominant actor seeks security first, and then economic goals

State interests are generally in conflict

increased security by one state threatens others
Realism

(interests)
primarily through bargaining and coercion

unbalanced interaction might cause war
Realism

(interactions)
the international system is anarchic

international institutions have little independent effect

institutions reflect the interests of powerful states
Realism

(institutions)
Other types of actors exist as well

prosperity is a common goal

actors often have common interests as a basis for cooperation
Liberalism

(interests)
More extensive cooperation

conflict is not inevitable, but may occur

lack of information and credibility may cause conflict
Liberalism

(interactions)
International institutions facilitate cooperation

international institutions more effective in issue areas that offers gains from cooperation
Liberalism

(institutions)
Many types of actors

Interests are socially constructed

actors contest information and discourse
Constructivism

(interests)
Interactions socialize actors to hold particular interests and can be transformed by understandings of interests

dominant discourse may reflect the interests of one / several actors
Constructivism

(interactions)
international institutions define identities and shape actions through norms

norms and understanding of social problems are constantly changing

institutions reflect the interests of powerful states
Constructivism

(institutions)
Interests
interactions
institutions
Three core concepts to The Unified Theoretical Framework
what actors want to achieve through political action;
their preferences over the outcome of an (international) interaction.
Interests
US security interests might have led to its promotion of democracy in the Middle East
Interests "example"
1. power or security
2. economic or material welfare
3. ideological goals
Three categories of interests
Realism
Liberalism
Constructivism
Three categories of interests correspond to three schools...
States,
governments,
groups,
international organizations, and individuals
Different types of "actors" in international relations
individuals or groups of people with common interests
Actors
A "central authority" with the ability to make and enforce laws, rules, and decisions within its
"territory" over a
"population" and has
"international recognition"
Actors and Interests

STATE:
Countries governed by states that lose central authority
Failed states
the expectation that states have legal and political supremacy within their boundaries.
Actors and Interests

SOVEREIGNTY:
States are motivated by an interest in security, economic welfare, and ideological goals.
States-as-actors
interests that belong to the state itself as a whole

generally driven by security and power
National Interests
1. a particular interest group
2. personal or political agenda
Particular interests may originate from
CAI: Security, power, wealth and ideology

EX: US, Canada, China, Switzerland, India, Uruguay
Actor: States

Commonly Ascribed Interests

Examples
CAI: Reelection/retention of office, ideology, and policy goals

EX: President of the US, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Speaker of the US House of Representatives
Actor: Politicians

Commonly Ascribed Interests

Examples
CAI: Wealth, profit

EX: General Motors, Sony, the pharmaceutical industry, National Association of Manufacturers, Business Roundtable
Actor: Firms, industries, or business associations

Commonly Ascribed Interests

Examples
CAI: Material well-being, wealth

EX: Capital, labor, land, human capital
Actor: Classes or factors of production

Commonly Ascribed Interests

Examples
CAI: Budget maximization, influence, policy preferences; often summarized by the adage of "where you stand depends on where you sit"

EX: Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, National Security Council, Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Actor: Bureaucracies

Commonly Ascribed Interests

Examples
CAI: As composites of states, they reflect the interests of member states according to their voting power. As the organizations, they are assumed to be similar to domestic bureaucracies

EX: UN, International Monetary Fund, International Postal Union, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
Actor: International Organizations

Commonly Ascribed Interests

Examples
CAI: Moral, ideological, or policy goals; human rights, the environment, religion.

EX: Red Cross, Amnesty International, Greenpeace, the Catholic Church
Actor: Nongovernmental organizations, often transitional or international in scope and membership

Commonly Ascribed Interests

Examples
The ways in which the choices of two or more actors combine to produce political outcomes.

Actors have to:
-Anticipate the likely choices of others.
-Take those choices into account
Interactions
Each actor's strategy depends on its anticipation of the strategies of other actors.
Strategic Interactions
Actors are purposive

Actors are strategic
Two assumptions of Interactions
Choose policies with the purpose of achieving their interests
Purposive actors
adopting strategies that are their best response to anticipated strategies of others (a "best response" strategy)
Strategic actors
Understanding the outcome of a complex interplay can be difficult
Interactions: Understanding Outcomes...
Game Theory
What helps us study strategic interactions?
1. Cooperation
2. Bargaining
Strategic interactions can be grouped into two broad categories...
Occurs when two or more actors adopt policies that make at least one actor better off than it would otherwise be.
Interactions: Cooperation
its benefits exist only for those who become better off by adjusting their policies, not necessarily for third parties.
Cooperation is not always an unmitigated good because...
Coordination and Collaboration
Interactions: what are the Forms of Cooperation?
little or no sacrifice
Coordination requires...
A significant contribution to realize a greater gain.

Individual interests may lead actors to "defect"
Collaboration requires...
It is adopting an uncooperative strategy that undermines the collective goal.
What is defecting?
Once actions are coordinated, there is no potential benefit from defecting.
A problem of coordination:
Incentives to defect: the Prisoner's Dilemma

Incentives to free-ride: collective action problems
The problem of collaboration:
Collectively, the prisoners would do best by cooperating with each other and staying quiet.
--yet, each has an incentive to rat out his accomplice

Defection is the best response whether the accomplice stays quiet or defects.
Collaboration: The Prisoner's Dilemma
It undermines the collective interest to cooperate.
What does individual incentive to "defect" do?
Efforts to produce public goods are hindered by collective action problems

-each individual has an incentive to free ride
Collaboration: Collective Action Problems
Socially desirable products

two qualities: non-excludable and non-rival in consumption (national defense, clean air, and water)
What are public goods?

(and two qualities that define them)
Game of chicken/or The Stag Hunt

(four boxes)
Cooperation Problems and Public Goods (example)
Institutions

Number and relative size of actors

Iteration, linkage, and strategies of reciprocal punishment

Information
Factors that facilitate cooperation:
It is easier for a smaller number of actors to cooperate
b/c
-easier to monitor each other's behavior
-communicate more readily
-twice-blessed: economic and social incentives
Cooperation: Number and Relative Size of Actors
Economic and social incentives
"Twice-Blessed"
Repeated interactions with the same partners
Cooperation: Iteration
Ties cooperation on one policy dimension to cooperation on other dimensions.
Cooperation: Linkage
The threat of reciprocal punishment can help enforce cooperation.
Cooperation: Reciprocal Punishment
The availability of information affects the likelihood of cooperation

Cooperation may fail because of uncertainty and misconception
Cooperation: Information
Describes an interaction in which actors must choose outcomes that make one better off at the expense of another.
Interactions: Bargaining
Pareto frontier
When actors bargain, the move along the...
Redistributive

Cooperation creates additional value while bargaining only allocated a fixed sum of value b/t two different actors
Interactions: The Zero-Sum Game

bargaining is purely...
cooperation and bargaining
Most interactions in international relations combine elements of...
Coercion or threats

Outside options (BATNA: Best Alternative To No Agreement)

Ability to set agenda or structure negotiations
Three factors affecting bargaining outcome
The more power an actor has, the more it can expect to get from others in the final outcome of bargaining.
Interactions: Who wins and who loses in bargaining?
The outcome that occurs when no bargain is reached.
What is reversion outcome?
Better for oneself and/or worse for the other side
Bargaining: Shifting the Reversion Outcome

power derives from the ability to make the reversion outcome...
coercion

outside options

agenda setting
3 basic ways of exercising power
reduces the value of the reversion outcome and thus change their behavior
Coercion
actors are able to get better deals when they have an outside option
outside options:
a party that can act first to set the agenda transforms the choices available to others.
agenda setting:
if actors cannot reach a bargain, they may end up failing to cooperate

cooperation and bargaining may succeed or fail for many reasons
Successful cooperation generates gains worth bargaining over because...
the problem of enforcement -> self-enforcing agreements

setting standards of behavior: the clearer, the better

monitoring and surveillance

reducing cost of joint decision-making

resolving disputes
How institutions promote cooperation (5 things)
neutral
Institutions are not...
the benefits of institutionalized cooperation well into the future

less costly to use existing institutions, even if imperfect, than to establish new ones.
Why do most states comply with rules most of the time? (two things)
The foundation of politics
Summary of interests:
strategic interaction to accomplish or fail to realize interests
Summary of cooperation and bargaining:
rules that constrain and/or enable interaction

institutions are not neutral; actors struggle to tilt them in their favor.
Summary of institutions:
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