A comprehensive review of terminology for AP Psychology. Definitions are for triggering other information. (Pulled from other lists.)
accommodation
the process of modifying a schema to account for new information; the process of the eyes lens changing shape in order to focus on distant or near objects
need for achievement
desire for accomplishment, mastery of people, ideas, things, desire for reaching a high standard
acquisition
a process in classical conditioning by which the association of a neutral stimulus with a natural stimulus is first established
activation synthesis
the idea that dreams are the result of the cerebral cortex interpreting and organizing random flashes of brain activity, originating in the lower brain structures, especially the pons
need for affiliation
desire to associate with others, to be part of a group, to form close and intimate relationships
after image
an image that remains after a stimulus is removed, especially one in which the colors are reversed
alcohol
the most frequently used and abused CNS depressant in most cultures; its use affects mood, judgment, cognition
anorexia (nervosa)
an eating disorder in which one starves oneself even though significantly underweight
anterograde amnesia
loss of memory for events that occur after the onset of the amnesia; eg, see in a boxer who suffers a severe blow to the head and loses memory for events after the blow
retrograde amnesia
loss of memory for events that occurred before the onset of amnesia; eg a soldier's forgetting events immediately before a shell burst nearby, injuring him
antisocial personality disorder
psychological disorder in which one demonstrates a lack of conscience
artificial intelligence
a subdiscipline of computer science that attempts to simulate human thinking
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex which have no specific motor or sensory repsonsibilities, but rather are involved in thinking, memory and judgment
associative learning
learning in which an organism learns that certain events occur together, such as my cat knowing that she will be fed when I get home from work
attitude
a relatively enduring evaluation of a person or thing; Asch demonstrated that this doesn't always match one's behavior
attribution theory
a way of explaining others' behavior by either one's disposition or one's situation
authoritarian
style of parenting in which the parent creates strict rules for the child and the child has little or no input into determining the rules
autonomic nervous system
division of the nervous system that control the glands and organs; its divisions arouse or calm
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt
availability heuristic
this cognitive shortcut features the idea that events which are vividly in memory seem to be more common
axon
extension of the neuron which carries, via an action potential, information that will be sent on to other neurons, muscles or glands
babbling
stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds
behavioral
perspective on psychology that sees psychology as an objective science without reference to mental states
belief perseverance
situation in which one's beliefs continue despite the fact that the ground for the beliefs have been discredited
big 5 personality factors
openness to new experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
binocular cues
retinal disparity and convergence which enable people to determine depth using both eyes
bipolar cells
eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells
blind spot
point in the retinal where the optic nerve leaves the retina so there are no rods or cones there
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works its way up to the brain's integration of sensory information
hemispheres
we have two, right and left, and some brain functions seem to centered in one or the other
brainstem
oldest part of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells upon entering the skull; controls fundamental survival processes like heartrate and breathing
bystander effect
the tendency to not offer help when needed if others are present who do not offer help
Cannon-Baird
theory of emotion that says that a stimulus causes simultaneously psyiological arousal and the subjective experience of an emotion
cerebral cortex
the fabric of interconnecting cells that blankets the brain hemispheres; the brain's center for information processing and control
chaining
using operant conditioning to teach a complex response by linking together less complex skills
chunking
organizing units of information into manageable units such as memorizing a phone number as three groups of information 248-555-1212
classical conditioning
method of learning in which a neutral stimulus can be used to elicit a response that is usually a natural response to a stimulus
client-centered therapy
developed by Carl Rogers, this humanistic therapy includes unconditional positive regard
cochlea
this coiled structure in the inner ear is fluid-filled and in it the energy from sound waves stimulate hair cells
cognitive dissonance theory
this says that we will suffer discomfort and act to change the situation when our thoughts and actions seem to be inconsistent
cognitive
perspective on psychology that stresses the importance of mental activities associated with thinking, remembering, etc
cognitive therapy
treatment for psychological disorders that centers on changing self-defeating thinking
collective unconscious
Jung's theory that we all share an inherited memory that contains our culture's most basic elements
collectivist
this adjective describes cultures in which the individual is less important than the group
concrete operations
Piaget's stage in which children learn such concepts as conservation and mathematical transformations; about 7 - 11 years of age
conditioning
generally, learning in which certain experiences make certain behaviors more or less likely; there are two forms of this
confounding variable
extraneous factor that interferes with the action of the independent variable on the dependent variable
control group
subjects in an experiment who do not receive application of the independent variable but are measured nonetheless for the dependent variable
convergent thinking
a type of critical thinking in which one evaluates existing possible solutions to a problem to choose the best one
corpus callosum
the fibers that connect the right and left hemispheres, enabling them to communicate
correlation coefficient
a positive one near 1.0 indicates two variable are positively related; a negative number indicates a negative relationship; zero indicates no relationship
debriefing
giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after the study is completed
defense mechanisms
Freud's processes by which individuals express uncomfortable emotions in disguised ways
deinstitutionalization
moving people with psychological or developmental disabilities from highly structured institutions to home- or community-based settings
denial
a defense mechanism in which unpleasant thought or desires are ignored or excluded from consciousness
difference threshold
also called the jnd; smallest distinction between two stimuli that can consistently be detected
diffusion of responsibility
reduction in sense of responsibility often felt by individuals in a group; may be responsible for the bystander effect
discrimination
treating members of different races, religions, ethnic groups differently; usually associated with prejudice
dispositional attribution
assuming that another's behavior is due to personality factors, not situational ones
dissociative fugue
disorder in which one travels away from home and is unable to remember details of his past, including often his identity
dopamine
a neurotransmitter that is associated with Parkinson's disease (too little of it) and schizophrenia (too much of it)
double blind
this term describes an experiment in which neither the subjects nor the experimenter knows whether a subject is a member of the experimental group or the control group
dreams
occur most often during REM sleep; may be caused by activation-synthesis, or may be a way of cementing memories
drive reduction
theory that claims that behavior is driven by a desire to lessen drives resulting from needs that disrupt homeostasis
DSM
initials of the American Psychiatric Association's book that lists diagnostic criteria for many psychological disorders
ego
the Latin for "I"; in Freud's theories, the mediator between the demands of the id and the superego
egocentrism
in a toddler, the belief that others perceive the world in the same way that he or she does
electroconvulsive therapy
a treatment in which low level electric current is passed through the brain
endocrine system
the slow messenger system of the body; produces hormones that affect many bodily functions
episodic
describes a type of memory that includes specific events that one has personally experienced
experiment
form of scientific investigation in which one variable is tested to determine its effect on another
external locus of control
this term describes what you have if your behaviors are driven mainly by outside forces
extinction
in classical conditioning, the process of eliminating the previously acquired association of the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response
extraversion
one of the Big 5, a personality trait orients one's interests toward the outside world and other people, rather than inward
extrinsic
term that describes motivations that drive behavior in order to gain rewards from outside forces
false consensus
a belief that others share the same opinion about something, when actually most don't
feature detection
the ability of the brain to identify specific components of visual stimuli such as corners or edges
fetal alcohol syndrome
sometimes the result in a child of the mother's excessive drinking while pregnant, characterized by low birth weight, facial abnormalities, mental retardation
fixed interval
describes the schedule of reinforcement wherein a worker receives a paycheck every Friday
fixed ratio
describes a schedule of reinforcement wherein a worker is paid for a certain sum for each product produced
crystallized
term describes a type of intelligence which applies cultural knowledge to solving problems
foot-in-the-door
term describes a phenomenon in which people who agree to a small request are more likely to later agree to a larger request
frequency
theory of hearing which states that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the tone's frequency
functional fixedness
the tendency to think about things only in terms of their usual uses; can be a hindrance to creative thinking
functionalism
William James's school of thought that stressed the adaptive and survival value of behaviors
fundamental attribution error
tendency to attribute others' behavior to their dispositions and our own behaviors to our situations
general adaptation syndrome
Seyle's concept that the body responds to stress with alarm, resistance and exhaustion
generativity vs. stagnation
Erikson's stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service
gestalt
German word for "whole", it refers to our tendency to perceive incomplete figures as complete
group polarization
tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group
groupthink
tendency for group members to think alike with certainty of correctness, biased perceptions of outgroup members, and generally defective decision-making processes
hallucination
a false sensory perception that seems to be real but for which there is not an actual external stimulus
hallucinogen
a substance capable of producing a sensory effect in the absence of real external sensory stimuli
heritability
the extent to which differences in a group of a characteristic is due to genetics, not environment
hindsight bias
the tendency, after an event occurs, to overestimate the likelihood that an event could have been predicted
humanist
perspective in psychology that stresses the goodness of people and their possibility of reaching their fullest potential
hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain events or emotions will occur
identity vs. role confusion
Erikson's stage during which teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves
imprinting
evidence of critical period in some animals; they follow the first moving thing they see after hatching
industry vs. inferiority
Erikson's stage between 6 and 11 years, when the child learns to be productive
inferiority complex
Adler's conception of a basic feeling of inadequacy stemming from childhood experiences
information processing
humans accomplish this either in parallel (unconsciously) or in serial fashion (consciously)
informed consent
agreement to participate in psychology research, after being appraised of the dangers and benefits of the research
initiative vs guilt
Erikson's third stage in which the child finds independence in planning, playing and other activities
insanity
a legal term describing one's inability to be responsible for one's action due to the condition of the mind
insight
in psychoanalysis, the basic understanding one develops of the underlying sources of emotion or behavioral difficulty
integrity vs despair
Erikson's final stage in which those near the end of life look back and evaluate their lives
IQ
the average is 100; there are many definitions of this attribute, including multiple and crystallized
internal locus of control
people with this tned to respond to internal states and desires; they tend to see their successes as the result of their own efforts
interposition
monocular visual cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one patially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away
intimacy vs isolation
Erikson's stage in which individuals form deeply personal relationships, marry, begin families
intrinsic
term that describes motivations that derive from one's interest in the object of the motivation, rather than from rewards that one might gain
introversion
a personality trait that signifies that one finds energy from internal sources rather than external ones
just noticeable difference
the threshold at which one can distinguish two stimuli that are of different intensities, but otherwise identical
latent
Freud's stage of psychosexual development occuring from about age 6 to puberty during which little happens in psychosexual terms
latent learning
a change in behavior due to experience acquired without conscious effort, s, for example, a student using a quote in an exam essay that the student had never tried to memorize, though eh had encountered it in studying
learned helplessness
lack of motivation to avoid unpleasant stimuli after one has failed before to escape similar stimuli
longitudinal
describes research that measures a trait in a particular group of subjects over a long period of time
long term
refers to memory that is stored effectively in the brain and may be accessed over an extended period of time
long term potentiation
a possible source of the formation of memories; improvement in a neuron's ability to transmit caused by repeated stimulations
lucid
describes a dream in which the dreamer is aware that he or she is dreaming and is able to influence the progress of the dream narrative
marijuana
a drug, often smoked, whose effects include euphoria, impairment of judgment and concentration and occasionally hallucinations; rarely reported as addictive
medulla
part of the brain nearest the spinal cord which controls breathing, heart rate and blood pressure
mental age
developed by Binet; equal to one's chronological age times the percentage score on an IQ test
mere exposure effect
this phenomenon causes one to prefer a stimulus as a consequence of repeated exposures to that stimulus, particularly is there is no adverse result of the exposure
mnemonic device
method of improving memory by associating new information with previously learned information
monocular
terms that means "one eyed", used to indicate the sort of of enviromental cues to depth perception tha tonly require one eye, for example, interposition
motion parallax
a depth cue in which the relative movement of elements in a scene gives depth information when the observer moves relative to the scene
motor cortex
an area of the brain, near the rear of the frontal lobes, that controls voluntary movement
MRI
a technique that enables us to see static images of the brain's structures; uses magnetism to achieve this effect
nature vs nurture
name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior
negative reinforcement
in operant conditioning, removing something unpleasant in order to elicit more of a particular behavior
neuroscience
perspective on psychology that emphasizes the study of the brain and its effects on behavior
neurotransmitter
a chemical that is released by a neuron for the purpose of carrying information across the gaps (synapses) between neurons
neutral
describes a stimulus in classical conditioning that would normally not elicit the response intended, such as the tone in Pavlov's experiments before it was associated with the food
night terrors
also called sleep terror disorder, these include the characteristic of waking abruptly in a state of panic, usually in children, less often in adults
normal distribution
describes a symmetrical, bell shaped curve that shows the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes
object permanence
recognition that things continue to exist even though hidden from sight; infants generally gain this after 3 to 7 months of age
obsessive-compulsive disorder
an anxiety disorder characterized by repetitive obsessions and compulsions
Oedipus complex
in Freud's theory, the conflict which results in a boy gaining a superego and beginning to emulate his father
omission training
a procedure in which reinforcement occurs when a specific behavior does not occur in a fixed period of time
operant conditioning
a method of influencing behavior by rewarding desired behaviors and punishing undesired ones
operational definition
a description of an experimental variable in such a way that the variable can be measured and the procedure can be replicated
optic chiasm
the point in the brain where the visual field information from each eye "crosses over" to the appropriate side of the brain for processing
oral stage
Freud's first stage of psychosexual development during which pleasure is centered in the mouth
paranoid
a type of schizophrenia characterized by prominent delusions that are persecutory or grandiose
parasympathetic
the branch of the nervous system that automatically calms us down when the reason for arousal has passed
Parkinson's disease
this ailment, whose symptoms includes tremors and later difficulty walking, is caused by inability to produce dopamine
permissive
describes a parenting style that is characterized by the parent making few demands on the child
person-centered
therapy developed by Rogers featuring the patient's self-discovery and actualization; also called client-centered
place theory
the idea that different sound frequencies stimulate different locations on the basilar membrae
placebo effect
phenomenon that some people get better even though they receive not medication but an inert substance which should have no medical effect
pons
part of the brain, works with the cerebellum in coordinating voluntary movement; neural stimulation studied in activation synthesis theory may originate here
positive psychology
field of study which concentrates on good psychological traits such as contentment and joy; it also studies character traits such as wisdom, integrity and altruism
preconscious
in Freud's theory, the level of consciousness in which thoughts and feelings are not conscious but are readily retrieveable to consciousness
preconventional
Kohlberg's stage of moral development in which rewards and punishments dominate moral thinking
prejudice
a negative attitude formed toward an individual or group without sufficient experience with the person or group
projection
defense mechanism in which one disguises one's won unacceptable impulses by attributing them to others
projective
term describes a personality test in which ambiguous stimuli trigger revelation of inner feelings, thoughts
psychodynamic
term describes the perspective on psychology in which inner feeling and unconscious tensions are emphasized
random
term that describes assignment in which all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to the control group or to the experimental group
reaction formation
defense mechanism in which unacceptable impulses are transformed into their opposite
reciprocal determinism
Bandura's idea that though our environment affects us, we also affect our environment
rehearsal
conscious repetition of information in order to fix it in memory, such as practicing a list of terms to memorize
reliability
in testing, the characteristic of a test that produces consistent scores through retesting or alternate halves or other methods
REM
describes sleep in which vivid dreams typically occur; this type of sleep increases as the night progresses while stage 4 sleep decreases
representative
this kind of sample accurately reproduces the characteristics of the population a researcher is studying
representativeness heuristic
this cognitive short cut enables one to generalization based on how closely a stimulus matches a typical member of a class; given a picture of a man in a tweed jacket with a textbook, is this man a professor or a truck driver?
reticular formation
a network of cells in the brainstem that filters sensory information and is involved in arousal and alertness
scapegoat
this theory says that having suffered negative experience, an individual might blame an innocent person or group for the experience and subsequently mistreat the person or group
schema
a collection of basic knowledge about a category of information; serves as a means of organization and interpretation of that information
higher-order
term describes conditioning in which the CS for one experiment becomes the UCS in another experiment so that another neutral stimulus can be made to elicit the original UCR
selective attention
this term describes the situation when you are focused on certain stimuli in the environment while other stimuli are excluded
self-esteem
the more positive one's estimation of one's qualities and characteristics, the higher this is
self-serving bias
he tendency to assign oneself credit for successes but to blame failures on external forces
sensorimotor
describes Piaget's stage in which the child explores the world through interaction of his mouth and hands with the environment
serial position effect
this tells us that the best recall of a list of items will be of those at the beginning of the list
shaping
an operant conditioning technique in which reinforces guide behavior to closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
signal detection
this theory predicts how and in what circumstances we can detect a stimulus; assumes there is no single threshold
socio-cultural
a perspective on psychology that emphasizes effects on behavior and thinking of one's culture and the people around one
social exchange
a theory that suggests that our behavior is based on maximizing benefits and minimizing costs
social facilitation
a phenomenon in which we perform simple or well-learned tasks better when in the presence of others
somatoform disorder
any of a group of psychological disturbances characterized by physical symptoms for which there is not a medical cause
split brain
a condition in which the two brain hemispheres are isolated by cutting the corpus callosum
spontaneous recovery
in classical conditioning the re-occurence of conditioning after it had appeared to be extinct
sublimation
a defense mechanism in which unacceptable energies are directed into socially admirable outlets, such as art
token economy
a technique in operant conditioning by which desired behaviors receive forms of currency that can be exchanged for rewards