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Simsbury Seniors AP Psychology Memory
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Terms in this set (77)
Memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
Encoding
-the processing of information into the memory system-- for example, by extracting meaning
-getting information into our brain
Storage
the retention of encoded information over time
Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
Sensory Memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Short-Term Memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
Long-Term Memory
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
Connectionism
views memories as emerging from interconnected neural networks
Working Memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
Parallel Processing
The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving
Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
Effortful Processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
Rehearsal
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
Overlearning
additional rehearsal even after we learn material
Spacing Effect
-the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
-we retain information better when our rehearsal is distributed over time
Testing Effect
repeated quizzing of previously studied material
Serial Position Effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
Visual Encoding
the encoding of picture images
Acoustic Encoding
the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
Semantic Encoding
the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
Imagery
mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
Rosy Retrospection
people tend to recall events more positively than they judged them at the time
Mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
Iconic Memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
Echoic Memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds or words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
Short-term memory is limited not only in duration but also in capacity, typically storing about seven bits of information (give or take two)
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
Mild Cognitive Impairment
often becomes Alzheimer's disease
Glutamate
-a neurotransmitter that enhances synaptic communication (LTP)
-drugs that boost glutamate are meant to help with memory
Flashbulb Memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Amnesia
the loss of memory
H.M.
-Hippocampus removed during surgery
-Could trace a mirrored outline of a star even though he had no memory of doing the task in the past
Implicit Memory
-retention dependent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative or procedural memory)
-examples: riding a bike; playing an instrument
Explicit Memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (also called declarative memory)
Hippocampus
a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
Left vs Right Hippocampus Damage
With left-hippocampus damage, people have trouble remembering verbal information, but they have no trouble recalling visual designs and locations. With right-hippocampus damage, the problem is reversed.
Cerebellum
plays an important part in our forming and storing of implicit memories created by classical conditioning
Infantile Amnesia
the implicit reactions and skills we learn during infancy reach far into our future, yet as adults we recall nothing (explicitly) of our first three years
Recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
Recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
Relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
Retrieval Cues
anchor points you can use to access the target information when you want to retrieve it later
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
Déjà Vu
That eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
State-Dependent Memory
what we learn in one state-- be it drunk or sober-- may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state
Mood-Congruent Memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
Absent-Mindedness
inattention to details leads to encoding failure (our mind is elsewhere as we lay down the car keys)
Transience
storage decay over time (after we part ways with former classmates, unused information fades)
Blocking
inaccessibility of stored information (tip of the tongue)
Misattribution
confusing the source of information (putting words in someone else's mouth or remembering a dream as an actual happening)
Suggestibility
the lingering effects of misinformation (a leading question-- "Did Mr. Jones touch your private parts?"-- later becomes a young child's false memory)
Bias
belief-colored recollections (current feelings toward a friend may color our recalled initial feelings)
Persistence
unwanted memories (being haunted by images of a sexual assault)
Proactive Interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
Retroactive Interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
Repression
-in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
-we repress painful memories to protect our self-concept and to minimize anxiety
Misinformation Effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
imagination inflation
repeatedly imagining nonexistent actions and events can create false memories
Source Amnesia
-Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (also called source misattribution). Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories
-We retain the memory of the event, but not of the context in which we acquired it
Gist
associated meanings and feelings with an event
Aplysia
slug used to study memory (in terms of neurons); has one of the most simple nervous systems in the animal kingdom
dendritic / axonal branching
new synapses are created
when learning occurs
traumatic amnesia
don't remember the moment of / before impact (as in head injury)
anterograde amnesia
cannot make a new memory after brain damage; cannot encode
retrograde amnesia
cannot remember events prior to brain damage
cognitive approach to memory
"memory" consists of encoding, storage, and retrieval
schemas
organized clusters of related knowledge (general / big picture; not details)
hierarchies / organizational categories
superordinate categories (ex. pet) vs subordinate categories (ex. black lab)
loci
pegging something to a location; memory device
context-dependent learning
has to do with your environment / the world around you when you learn
positive transfer
skills for one task help you learn a new task
negative transfer
skills for one task do not help you learn a new task (they interfere)
serial position effects (primacy effect / recency effect)
the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst
structural encoding
emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus
phonemic encoding
emphasizes what a word wounds like
semantic encoding
emphasizes the meaning of verbal input
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