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LSAT

Terms in this set (1016)

native, originating in a place

relating to the mind as the subject of experience

seeming contradiction or an actual contradiction

irregular, unusual

having a thick consistency, gelatinous

fleeting, or short life or duration

to confirm or make certain

implied, tacitly understood

clear, understandable

foolishly generous, not thrifty

having the deceptive look of truth

random, capricious, impartial

hostility, enmity

strong feeling against, dislike for

firmly held disbelief

clearly relevant

difference, disagreement

not well matched, unsuited

to separate and make alone or single

to cut off completely

the combination of diverse elements into one

to create, foster

distinct, separate

unusual, strange

repetitive, and thus unnecessary

a necessary predecessor

to postpone or to submit to another

a thing that sets another in motion or causes change

to deprive of weapons or to win over, ingratiate

inclined, or the position of lying face down

deep, thoughtful

rotational force, twist

to move away from

to go apart in different directions

peripheral, no on the subject at hand

having pores, having minute holes

to fall suddenly

excessive speaking, wordiness

to disquiet, upset

not transparent, not letting light through

unable to penetrate, pierced

to dry out, dehydrate

unspoken yet understood

caprice, a playful thing

theoretical or to summarize or a summary

in the essential nature of a thing

doubtful, questionable

a trite saying, bromide

a logical flaw, mistake

to hesitate, protest

to state without need of proof

to disprove, to argue against

curious, seeking knowledge

everything, pedestrain

intelligible, consistent

wavering, vacillating

long, complaining speech

specialized vocabulary

concise, stating in few words

to spread thinly, or scattered

well- spoken, intelligible, speak clearly and distinctly

extremely talkative

to make a speech, esp. pompously

few words, reticent

to hide or hidden, vague, not easily understood

flim-flam, trickery

unstable, likely to explode or vaporize

to speak spontaneously

one who has great enthusiasm esp for a cause

to take to oneself, to adopt a belief

tending to simulate

evil, having evil intent

an ideal, perfect model

negate, make invalid

complete, accomplish, perfect, to a high degree

difficult, strenuous

happiness, pleasantness

very talented child

cunning, trickery

extremely clever, original

necessary, immediately important

restrict, confine

keep secret, contain, inhibit

give in, surrender

sycophantic-flatter, fawning

fanatical enthusiasm

restrain, forbid

malleability, stretchiness

one who has an attitude of contempt, distrust

determined, faithful

one who appreciates fine things

in good taste, very proper

mild word or phrase substituted for an offensive one

overly scholarly

overbearing, proud

one who hates humanity

seemingly honest while not being so

appropriateness, social acceptability

one who holds unorthodox or unapproved beliefs

genuine, trustworthy

to eliminate completely

general meeting, essence

empirically provable, existing independently

connecting, association

relevant, to the point

direct opposite

mixed, made up of unlike elements

generalized judgment of a group

model, theoretical framework

earlier example setting a rule

adapt or compliant with

to match, to conform, to parallel

slight distinction

insignificant, not to be considered

minor, not important

depending on, subservient

mixture esp of metal

having varying elements

intricate, coiled, twisted

not able to be untangled

diverse, of great variety

to join together, merge

essential element

fragment esp glass or pottery

throughout, in every part

multiplicity, excessive amount

uncalled for, not warranted

noisy chaos, bedlam

occasional, infrequent

introductory passage

beginning, budding

connection, center

in order, arranged serially

to blend together, esp a text

number of members of a governing body necessary in order to proceed

group of performers

essential nature of a thing

adhering to a strict set of beliefs

intrepid person, innovator

deviating from the norm

merging of diverse parts into a whole

separation into two parts

a thing or person out of place in time

young, inexperienced

needing swift action

not timely, inappropriate

promptness, eagerness

to suspend, as a meeting

common, frequent

stagnation, equilibrium

unstable, open to change

state of balance

commanding full attention, fascinating

stoppage, ceasing

to let go of, give up

an outlaw, one who is unconventional

to give and take, to return, to pay back

a zealous campaign for a cause

original or relating to seed or semen

to grant, as a gift

negligible, having no effect

not questionable, not doubtable

capable of living, capable of working

multiply, procreate

barren, not cultivated or sown

period of gestation

prone to, open to

to work together, cooperate

to conspire, to be in secret sympathy with

at the same time

stubborn, defiant

pastoral, relating to country life

everywhere, in all places

to adapt to a culture

giant statue, very large thing

property of space, as in height, width, depth

to bloom, flourish

adjacent with, borders touching

a gap or fissure

to repeat, sum up

not solid, weak

low point, point opposite the zenith

lying down, resting

supporting piece of a structure, strengthen, support

change from one place to mode to another

outside, surrounding, auxiliary

to cluster, to form a nucleus

sideways, on the side

without shape, unclassifiable

twisting, winding, tricky

difficult to understand, unable to understand, stupid

to compress, contract

to obstruct, block up

asleep, inactive

happy, prosperous, peaceful

stale, foul, motionless

sudden or steep, rain, snow, to bring about suddenly

to walk in an easygoing swagger

survey, esp military action

smash into dust

turn away, avoid

wandering, traveling

come together, merge

to produce milk

give off or to hide

periodic and repeating

lukewarm, room temperature

coloring element in paint

range of all colors, complete range

flowery or reddish

having shiny rainbow colors, shimmery

picture made of many small parts such as tiles

multi- colored and blotchy

speckle or fleck esp with paint, effect of many small dots

abstract, supernatural

not physical, not able to be touched

a single, huge structure, or a large organization acting as one force

lotion that moisturizes

to supply or combine with oxygen or air

to revive, renew

death, cessation

uninteresting, without liveliness

sweet, sentimental

strong tasting or smelling

aromatic, having an odor

apparent, under pretext

argument, strife

silly, empty-headed

ridiculous, absurd

amateur, dabbler

to think hard, ponder

study thoroughly

keen, mentally sharp

unsophisticatedness, artlessness

contradict, give false cover to

like a pontiff, pope, extremely authoritative

stumble, hesitate

remnant, souvenir, venerated object

large vehicle that crushes anything in its path

condemn, forbid

disapprove, condemn, disapproval, condemnation

without fear of punishment

formal charge against a person

one who likes to eat alot

austere, disciplined

one who lives for pleasure

extravagent, prodigal

stubborn, unfeeling

unselfish behavior

straightforwardness, sincerity

crudeness, naturalness

scold with excessively harsh language

long, harsh, highly critical speech

depraved, condemned

deserving of blame

face, expression or allow to happen

praise, approval

mockery, parody

scorning, ridicule

vengeful, spiteful

ferocious, extremely harsh

friendly, pleasant

sophisticated, wordly

praise greatly, make seem greater

having high sounding speech

false, fradulent

formidable, illustrious

artistic, relating to beauty

unprepossessing

hesitantm, uncertain

having good judgment, prudent

over-attentive care, anxiety

disturb or upset

having ample space

aggravate, make worse

sorry, repentant

lightness, good humor

complaining, whining

offense, resentment, provoke or excite

known through immediate insight not gained through rational thought

extremely careful, fastidious

ability to foretell events

understandable, comprehensible

clear, serene, transparent`

oversight, unwillingness

to yield, grant

take back, recant

disposition, sensibility

extreme patriot, one who believes one group is superior to another

fight with, oppose

have moral qualms about, moral principle

babble, as a child

unknowing, unheeding

secret, esoteric

referring to or hinting t something esp in literature

make clear, explain

bold, open, apparent

noticeable, prominent

knowledge, esp gained from books

one who supervises students at an exam

distinguishing mark

decorative wall hanging

common speech, ordinary language

round-about, indirect

excessive wordiness

outgoing, friendly

extremely talkative and articulate

chatter, talk meaninglessly

fluent, talkative

conversation, long paper or speech on a subject

like runes, mysterious, secret

encoded, secret, indecipherable

hidden, available only to the initiate

overshadowing, esp sun or moon

potential, hidden quality

spurious, not genuine

imitate, make seem real

excessive exaggeration

solicit or promote

agreeable, obediant

hard, unyielding, very hard stone

not able to be changed

stubborn, uncompromising

stubborn, unmoving

uncertain, having conflicting feelings

impulsive action, whim

changeable, not constant

spontaneous, spur of the moment

run away secretly

difficult to find or pin down

fend off, dodge

neglect or ignore

hope, ambition, breathing in

determined ahead of time

acquire through sneakiness

spicy, as in hot sauce, stimulating, provocative

tease, give taste of

Cannot be false - def

Cannot be true - opposite

Cannot be false - opposite

not necessarily true

Could be false - def

not necessarily true

Could be false - opposite

Could be true - opposite

Must be false - def

Must be false - opposite

Must be true - opposite

not necessarily true

As indicated by

For the reason that

this can be seen by

Not necessarily true - opposite

Not necessarily false - def

Not necessarily false - opposite

2 things that cannot be true

2 things that CAN be true

If it is snowing, then it must be cold.

If S happens then C happens.

It is snowing only if it is cold.

If S happens then C happens

It cannot snow unless it is cold.

If S happens then C happens

We know it is cold if it is snowing.

If S happens then C happens

Sierra goes for a walk if and only if Columbine goes for a walk.

Both or us go or neither of us go

Sara cannot be second unless Trang is first.

If S is second then T is first. Or if T is not first then S is not second. (Get rid of the cannot - arrow through the unless)

Get rid of the cannot - arrow through the unless

No person who buys the red shirt does not buy the blue shirt.

If someone buys the red shirt, that person buys the blue shirt. In other words, buying the blue shirt is a necessary condition for buying the red shirt.

Since it is impossible to buy the red shirt without also buying the blue shirt, buying the blue shirt is a necessary condition for buying the red shirt. In other words, one can't buy the red shirt without buying the blue shirt, too.

Jameson does not attend the concert unless Steve does.

On the day after the day

2 days next to each other

Dispute the truth

Instill by persistent instruction

irritable, peevish, or impatient

Fewer than three

the capacity to produce an effect

A violation of a law, command, or duty

A occurred before B, so A must have caused B.

Common Causal Flaw

A and B tend to occur together, so A must cause B.

Common Causal Flaw

A is one possible cause, so A must be the only cause.

Common Causal Flaw

Weaken a causal argument

Provide an alternate cause
Show that cause and effect are reversed
Show there is no causal relationship (merely a coincidence)

Reading comprehension 4 points

Cast of Characters
Author's Opinion
Main Idea
Passage Structure

Reading Comprehension pay attention

What's interesting
What questions would you ask yourself
Any ideas that are compared or contrasted
Predictions

Never done or known before

immediately/far

be on the look out

be on the look out

not s --> h can have both but must have at least one

s --> not h can have none but not both

If wrens are in the forest, then so are grosbeaks.

W--> G or no G --> no W

If harriers are in the forest, then grosbeaks are not.

H --> no G or G --> no H (not both)

If jays, martins, or both are in the forest, then so are harriers.

J or M --> H or no H --> no J and no M

Wendy appears in every photograph that Selma appears in.

Raimundo appears in every photograh that Yakira does not appear in

is an effect of

played a role in

responsible for

was a factor in

Socrates is a man
All men are mortal

Socrates is mortal

No budget committee member serves on the planning committee.

Neither giraffes nor bears are on display

no giraffes and no bears. Make sure that you are looking at the NOT ~ conditional.

Some professors at the school teach Spanish.
Some Spanish teachers have been to Spain.

This tells you nothing because you don't know that the Spanish teachers are from the school.

needless repetition of an idea, statement, or word

Two types of Conclusions

Descriptive or Prescriptive which are either absolute or possible.

Types of Descriptive Conclusion

1. Assertions of Truth
2. Comparisons
3.Predictions
4.Conditionals

Define Assertion of Truth

In an Assertion of Truth, the author states that something is or is not the case.
"So, there are always situations in which it is healthy to try to express one's anger."
"Clearly, then, our patrons prefer not to eat potatoes."

In a Comparison, the author makes a claim about one thing in relation to another thing.
"This advantage makes B.t. toxins preferable tochemical insecticides for use as components of insect pest management programs."
"On the basis of these results the official concluded that the new pesticide was more effective thanthe old pesticide, at least in the short term, in limiting the loss of certain fruit to insects."

In a Prediction, the author states what will happen or what is likely to happen in the future.
"So once humans begin to tap into this tremendous source of creativity and innovation, many problems that today seem insurmountable will be within our ability to solve."

In a Conditional, the author states the conclusion in terms of, "if...then..."
"Clearly, ifyou buy a Sturdimade, you can rely on being able to drive it for a very long distance."
"So ifthey were not so brittle, one could reliably determine a rattlesnake's age simply from the number of sections in its rattle."

Prescriptive Conclusion

Prescriptive Conclusionsstate what "should" or "ought" to be the case.
Prescriptive Conclusions are always some form of recommendation.

Recommendation Conclusion

In a Recommendation, the author proposes a course of action.
"Additional restrictions should be placed on driver's licenses of teenagers."
"So individuals who want to reduce their risk of cancer should reduce their fat intake."

Absolute Certainty

Absolute

Something definitely is or is not the case.
A course of action should definitely be undertaken.

Possible Certainty

Something is likely or maybe the case.
A course of action should perhaps be undertaken.

Ways that author supports conclusion.

Offer an alternative explanation?
Eliminate possible alternative explanations?
Apply a general principle to a specific case?
Argue by analogy?
Use an example to prove a point?
Cite a relevant authority?

How should you attack a Method of Argument question?

1. Identify what the question is asking you to do.
What is your job?
2. Engage the stimulus as directed by the question.
How do you do your job?
3. Consider the requirements of the correct answer.
What should the correct answer look like?
4. Evaluate the choices looking for the correct answer.
Which answer looks like your prediction?
Eliminate answer choices that do not accurately describe the author's method of reasoning.

What is the evidence and the conclusion?

It is inaccurate to say that a diet high in refined sugar cannot cause adult-onset diabetes, since a diet high in refined sugar can make a person overweight, and being overweight can predispose a person to adult-onset diabetes.

Evidence:
A diet high in refined sugar can make a person overweight.
Being overweight can predispose a person to adult-onset diabetes.

Conclusion: It is inaccurate to say that a diet high in refined sugar cannot cause adult-onset diabetes.

Method of Argument:
It is inaccurate to say that A cannot cause C because A can cause B and B can cause C.

Any language learned by the geologist is learned by the the historian.

If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?

Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage?

The main point of the argument is that

Larew and Mendota disagree about whether

Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument above?

Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion above to be properly drawn?

Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?

Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the statement above

Which one of the following, if true, would most effectively resolve the apparent paradox above?

Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

Which one of the following describes the technique of reasoning used above?

The reasoning in the astronomer's argument is flawed because this argument

Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its pattern of reasoning to the argument above?

The answer to which one of the following questions would contribute most to an evaluation of the argument?

If the statements above are true, which one of the following CANNOT be true?

Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the viewpoint of the historians described above?

Which one of the following can be properly inferred from Rosen's statement?

Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the reasoning above?

Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument above?

Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its pattern of reasoning to the argument above?

Of the following, which one most accurately expresses the main point of the argument?

Which one of the following, if true, would provide the most support for the economists' assertion?

The argument is flawed because it

The dialogue most supports the claim that Tony and Raoul disagree about whether

If the statements above are true, which one of the following must be false?

The advertisement proceeds by

Which one of the following, if assumed, would allow the conclusion to be properly drawn?

The answer to which one of the following questions would most help in evaluating the columnist's argument?

Sue challenges Anne's reasoning by

The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following?

Each of the following, if true, supports the claim above EXCEPT

Each of the following, if true, weakens the argument EXCEPT

Which one of the following, if all of them are true is LEAST helpful in establishing that the conclusion above is properly drawn?

Each of the following describes a flaw in the psychologist's reasoning EXCEPT

Which one of the following, if true, does NOT help to resolve the apparent discrepancy between the safety report and the city's public safety record?

If the statements above are true, each of the following could be true EXCEPT

If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?

If the information above is correct, which one of the following conclusions can be properly drawn?

Which one of the following can be inferred from the statement above?

Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage?

If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?

If the information above is correct, which one of the following conclusions can be properly drawn on the basis of it?

The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following?

Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above?

Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage?

Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the statements above, if they are true?

Which one of the following inferences is most supported by the information above?

If all of the statements above are true, which one of the following must be true?

Which one of the following can be logically inferred from the passage?

The statements above, if true, most strongly support which of the following?

Which one of the following logically follows from the statements above?

Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above?

Which one of the following conclusions is most strongly supported by the information above?

Which one of the following inferences is most strongly supported by the information above?

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument?

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument?

Which one of the following most accurately restates the main point of the passage?

The main point of the argument is that

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the journalist's argument?

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the argument?

Which one of the following most logically completes the passage

Main Point (fill in the blank)

The information above provides the LEAST support for which one of the following?

Which one of the following most logically completes the argument?

The educators' reasoning provides grounds for accepting which of the following statements?

Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the researcher's argument?

Which one of the following, if shown to be a realistic possibility, would undermine the argument?

Which one of the following, if true, would most call into question the analysts' explanation of the price increase?

Which one of the following, if true, could be used by Cora to counter Bernard's rejection of her explanation?

Which one of the following, if true, is the strongest logical counter parent P can make to parent Q's objection?

Which one of the following, if true, most calls into question the claim above?

Which one of the following, if true, casts the most doubt on the conclusion above?

Which one of the following statements, if true, most weakens the speaker's argument?

All of the following weakens the politician's argument EXCEPT?

The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument

Which one of the following, if true, most strongly strengthens the argument?

Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the statement above?

Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the statement above?

Which one of the following, if true, does most to justify the conclusion above?

Each of the following, if true, supports the claim above EXCEPT:

Which one of the following, if true, LEAST strengthens the argument above?

Each of the following, if true, would strengthen the argument EXCEPT

Which one of the following discoveries, if it were made, would most support the above hypothesis about South America and Africa?

Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the medical doctor's argument?

Each of the following, if true, strengthens the toxicologist's argument EXCEPT

Which one of the following, if true, most supports the argument

The conclusion above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

Which one of the following, if assumed, would allow the conclusion to be properly drawn?

Which one of the following, if true, enables the conclusion to be properly drawn?

Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the argument's conclusion to be properly inferred?

Which one of the following is an assumption that would serve to justify the conclusion above?

The environmentalist's conclusion would be properly drawn if it were true that the

The conclusion above is properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed?

Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument above?

Which one of the following is an assumption upon which the argument depends?

The argument assumes which one of the following?

The conclusion in the passage above relies on which of the following assumptions?

The argument assumes which one of the following?

The conclusion in the passage above relies on which one of the following assumptions?

The position taken above presupposes which one of the following?

The conclusion cited does not follow unless

Which one of the following is an assumption that the art historian's argument requires in order for its conclusion to be properly drawn?

On which one of the following assumptions does the argument rely?

Which one of the following is an assumption on which the columnist's argument depends?

Which one of the following is an assumption on which Barnes's argument depends?

Which one of the following, if true, would most effectively resolve the apparent paradox above?

Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the passage above?

Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the puzzling fact cited above?

Which one of the following, if true, most helps to reconcile the discrepancy indicated above?

Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent conflict described above?

Which one of the following, if true, most helps to reconcile the safety experts' belief with the apparently contrary evidence described above?

Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the finding of the nicotine study?

Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain why raisins contain more iron per calorie than do grapes?

Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the behavior of the vervet monkeys described above?

The method of the argument is to

The argument proceeds by

The argument derives its conclusion by

Which one of the following describes the technique of reasoning used above?

Which one of the following is an argumentative strategy employed in the argument?

Which one of the following is an argumentative strategy employed in the argument?

The argument employs which one of the following reasoning techniques?

Aiesha responds to Adam's argument by

Which one of the following most accurately describes the relationship between Jane's argument and Mark's argument?

The claim that people have positive or negative responses to many nonsense words plays which one of the following roles in the argument?

Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the psychologist's argument by the claim that the obligation to express gratitude cannot be fulfilled anonymously?

Ruth responds to Jorge's criticism by

Sue challenges Anne's reasoning by

Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the statement that zooplankton feed upon phytoplankton?

The claim that humans are still biologically adapted to a diet of wild foods plays which one of the following roles in the nutritionist's argument?

The phrase, "certain traits like herding ability risk being lost among pedigreed dogs" serves which one of the following functions in the argument?

Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument's reasoning?

The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the ground that the argument

The reasoning above is flawed because it fails to recognize that

A questionable aspect of the reasoning above is that it

The reasoning in the argument is fallacious because the argument

Which one of the following is most closely parallel in its reasoning to the reasoning in the argument above?

Which one of the following exhibits a pattern of reasoning most similar to that exhibited by the argument above?

Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its logical features to the argument above?

Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its pattern of reasoning to the argument above?

The structure of the reasoning in the argument above is most parallel to that in which one of the following?

Which one of the following exhibits a flawed pattern of reasoning most similar to that in the argument above?

The flawed pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following?

The pattern of reasoning displayed in the argument above is most closely paralleled by that in which one of the following arguments?

The questionable reasoning in the argument above is most closely paralleled by that in which one of the following?

Which one fo the following arguments exhibits flawed reasoning most similar to that exhibited by the argument above?

The flawed reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the commentator's argument?

Which one of the following arguments has a flawed pattern of reasoning most like the flawed reasoning in the argument above?

Which one of the following exhibits both of the logical flaws exhibited by the argument above?

The answer to which one of the following questions would contribute most to an evaluation of the argument?

Clarification of which one of the following issues would be most important to an evaluation of the skeptics' position?

Which one of the following would be most important to know in evaluating the hypothesis in the passage?

Which one of the following would it be most relevant to investigate in evaluating the conclusion of George's argument?

Which one of the following would it be most helpful to know in order to judge whether what the scientist subsequently learned calls into question the hypothesis?

If the statements above are true, which one of the following CANNOT be true?

The argument can most reasonably be interpreted as an objection to which one of the following claims?

The statements above, if accurate, can best be used as evidence against which one of the following hypotheses?

The statements above, if true, most seriously undermine which one of the following assertions?

If all of the claims made above are true, then each of the following could be true EXCEPT:

If the statements above are true, then which one of the following must be false?

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the point at issue between Ted and Mary?

Which one of the following most accurately represents what is at issue between Jorge and Ruth?

The dialogue above lends the most support to claim that Sherrie and Fran disagree with each other about which one of the following statements?

On the basis of their sentiment, Logan and Mendez are committed to disagreeing over whether

Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle above?

Which one of the following judgments best illustrates the principle illustrated by the argument above?

The principle above, if established, would justify which one of the following judgments?

The information above most closely conforms to which one of the following principles?

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the principle underlying the argumentation above?

Each of the following principles is logically consistent with the columnist's conclusion EXCEPT

Which one of the following principles most helps to justify the reasoning above?

Which one of the following propositions most helps to justify the reasoning above?

Each of the following precepts is logically consistent with the columnist's conclusion EXCEPT

Which one of the following most accurately conforms to the principle above?

The principle above conforms most to which of the following?

[ A _ B ] ... A in inspected __?__ B

before / ahead of

[ A _ B ] ... B is inspected __?__ A

[ A _ _ _ B ] ... There are exactly three spaces __?__ A and B / A and B are __?__ three spaces.

between / separated by

D is inspected exactly two days before E is inspected.

H is inspected exactly two days ahead of when L is inspected.

F marches exactly three groups behind G.

K marches exactly three groups after J.

R and Q are separated by four spaces, and R is ahead of Q.

[ R _ _ _ _ Q ]

There are four spaces between D and H, and D is behind H.

[ H _ _ _ _ D ]

First part (X --> Y)

Second part (X --> Y)

Then / Only / Only if / Unless

The "unless" rule

1. Changes the other part into the opposite.
2. The part with the unless goes last.

G does not speak fourth unless Q speaks second.

Unless Q speaks second, G does not speak fourth.

P sings seventh if G sings fourth.

P sings seventh only if G sings fourth.

T dances sixth only if P dances third

B swims immediately after F only if D does not swim immediately ahead of K.

Unless P swims immediately after T, J swims immediately after S.

T dances sixth unless P dances third.

Unless A eats cake, B cannot eat cake.

If A sits next to B, then B does not sit next to C.

Most people diagram this as AB --> -B-C-. This is incorrect!

When F dances third, then G dances 7th

J dances fifth only if M dances second

R jumps into the pool immediately ahead of P unless Q jumps into the pool after H.

S and T are displayed on consecutive days.

There are two days between the day Q is inspected and the day R is inspected.

Q is not inspected the day before R is inspected.

D is not inspected exactly two days before E is inspected.

Q is inspected before R is inspected.

Q is inspected before R is inspected but after H is inspected.

H and Q are both inspected before R is inspected.

A is inspected before B, C, and D are inspected.

F is displayed immediately prior to G, and G is displayed at some point before I.

Either H or J must be inspected on the third day.

H must be inspected on the third day or the fifth day.

A, B, or C must be displayed on the first day.

What is a sufficient condition?

an event or circumstance whose occurrence indicates that a necessary condition must also occur.

If a sufficient occurrence occurs, then you automatically know that the necessary condition also occurs.

If (sufficient), then (necessary)

What is a necessary condition?

an event or circumstance whose occurrence is required in order for a sufficient condition to occur.

If a sufficient occurrence occurs, then you automatically know that the necessary condition also occurs.

If (sufficient), then (necessary)

SUFFICIENT/NECESSARY CONDITIONS
If you get an A+, then you must have studied.

Sufficient: If you get an A +

Necessary: Then you must have studied.

Depicted as: A+ --> Study

If Chris goes fishing with Steve, then Jason will join them as well.

Terms that introduce the sufficient condition

Terms that introduce the necessary condition

Then
Only
Only if
Unless

SUFFICIENT/NECESSARY CONDITIONS
Unless a person studies, he or she will not receive an A+.

Laron performs second only if Nancy performs sixth.

If V is displayed immediately before W, then S must be displayed third.

If Kahlil performs first, then Martin performs at some time before Paulo.

If R is delivered first, then X is delivered fourth.

If R is inspected on the third day, S is not inspected on the fifth day.

If F's delivery is earlier than M's, then L's delivery is earlier than H's.

G is recorded earlier than H

Z is selected during one of the first two days.

C must sit 4 chairs behind D, and E must sit 3 chairs before C.

Either S or T must speak on the third day.

Tom can sit neither immediately before nor immediately after Pat.

If J is performed fourth, K is performed sixth.

A is not shorter than B.

If A sits next to B, then B does not sit next to C.

Y is inspected before both X and Z are inspected.

M and T must be performed on consecutive days.

R cannot be inspected first.

Three speakers--F, G, and H--give six consecutive one-hour speeches, two speeches per speaker. Exactly one speaker speaks during each hour. The speaker that gives the first speech must also give the second speech.

K must be played before L.
L must be played before M.

If Q is displayed fourth, then R must be displayed first.
R and S are displayed consecutively.

If Q is displayed fourth, then R must be displayed second.
R and S are displayed consecutively.

W and X cannot speak consecutively.
X must speak third of fifth.

Six lawyers--H, J, K, L, M, and O--must speak at a convention. The six speeches are delivered one at a time, consecutively, according to the following restrictions:
K and L must speak consecutively.
O must speak fifth.

A salesman must visit five families--the Browns, the Chans, the Duartes, the Egohs, and the Feinsteins--one after another, not necessarily in that order. The visit must conform to the following restrictions:
The Browns must be visited first or fifth.
The Feinsteins cannot be visited third.
The Chans must be visited fourth.

A child must play five games--P, Q, R, S, and T--one after another, not necessarily in that order. The games must be played according to the following conditions:
The child plays exactly two games between playing S and playing T, whether or not S is played before T.
P is played immediately before Q is played.

A doctor must see six patients--C, D, E, F, G, and H--one after another, not necessarily in that order. The patients must be seen according to the following conditions:
E is seen exactly three patients after C.
D is seen immediately before F is seen.

* If G is seen third, which one of the following must be true?

The CE split-block must be placed into slots 1-4 because if it is placed in slots 2-5 there will be no room for the DF block.

When M is shown first, then O is shown sixth.

Each rock classic is immediately preceded on the CD by a new composition.

[NR] is wrong because it doesn't state that each new composition is immediately followed by a rock classic.

B is not inspected the day before C is inspected.

C cannot be inspected second.

A tutor is planning a daily schedule of individual tutoring sessions for each of six students--S, T, W, X, Y, and Z. The tutor will meet with exactly one student at a time, for exactly one hour each session. The tutor will meet students starting at 1 P.M., for six consecutive hours.

This is a 1-1-1-1-1-1 relationship (balanced).

Dr. Saitawa schedules six patients--G, H, L, M, O, and P--for surgery during a single week on Monday through Friday. Dr. Saitawa will operate on exactly one patient each day, except for one of the days when Dr. Saitawa will operate on two patients in separate, non-simultaneous sessions.

This is a 2-1-1-1-1 relationship (overloaded).

One a patient has been assigned a day, it is still possible that another patient could be assigned to that day and thus the day is not "closed off" from further consideration.

Seven passengers--G, H, L, M, O, P, and S are assigned to nine seats.

This is a 1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1 relationship (underfunded).

The deficit of variables can be countered by creating two "E" placeholder variables to represent the two empty seats.

Six swimmers--H, J, K, L, N, and P--are assigned to six swimming lanes numbered 1 through 6. Exactly one swimmer is assigned to each lane. The lane assignments conform to the following conditions:
Swimmer K is assigned a lower-numbered lane than is swimmer J.
Swimmer P is assigned a lower-numbered lane than is swimmer K.

Five dogs--an Akita, a Bulldog, a Cocker Spaniel, a Doberman, and an English Settler--compete in the final round of a dog show. Each dog will be shown alone to the judges exactly once in accordance with the following conditions:
The Doberman can be shown neither immediately before nor immediately after the English Settler.
The Akita must be shown two places before the Doberman.

Which one of the following must be true?
(A) If the Akita is shown third, the English Settler must be shown second.
(B) If the Bulldog is shown fourth, the Akita must be shown third.
(C) If the Cocker Spaniel is shown third, the English Settler must be shown first.
(D) If the Doberman is shown third, the Bulldog must be shown second.
(E) If the English Settler is shown second, the Cocker Spaniel must be shown fourth.

A manager must schedule five meetings--Accounting, Finance, Management, Resources, and Training--during a single workweek, Monday through Friday. Each meeting will be scheduled for exactly one day, and exactly one meeting is held per day. The meeting schedule must observe the following constraints:
The Management meeting is held the day before the Finance meeting.
The Resources meeting is held at some time after the Finance meeting.
The Accounting meeting is held second.

Six students--T, V, W, X, Y, and Z--are scheduled to speak at a debate contest. Each student will speak exactly once, and no two speakers will speak at the same time. The schedule must satisfy the following requirements:
T speaks at some time before W.
X must be the fourth speaker.
V speaks immediately after T.

A jazz band director is selecting the songs for an evening's performance. Seven songs--F, G, H, J, Q, R, and S--will be played one after another, not necessarily in that order. Each song will be played exactly once, according to the following conditions:
F must be played immediately before or immediately after G.
H must be played immediately before or immediately after J.
S must be played fourth.
G must be played after F.
H must be played before J.

Which one of the following cannot be true?
(A) F and R are played consecutively.
(B) G and Q are played consecutively.
(C) H and R are played consecutively.
(D) J and Q are played consecutively.
(E) Q and R are played consecutively.

A college dormitory manager must assign five students--P, Q, R, S, and T--to five different floors of the dormitory--floors 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6. The assignments must comply with the following restrictions:
P must be assigned to the floor directly above Q.
R must be assigned to floor 6.

Seven attorneys--C, D, F, G, H, J, and K--are scheduled to interview for a position with a local law firm. The seven interviews are conducted on six different days, Monday through Saturday. On one of the days two attorneys will be interviewed and on all other days exactly one attorney will be interviewed. The interview schedule must conform to the following conditions:
F and K must be interviewed on the same day.
J must be interviewed on Thursday.
F must be interviewed after C but before G.
D and H cannot be interviewed on consecutive days.
K must be interviewed on either Tuesday or Friday.

Which one of the following could be true?
(A) C is interviewed on Wednesday.
(B) C is interviewed on Friday.
(C) D is interviewed on Tuesday.
(D) G is interviewed on Wednesday.
(E) G is interviewed on Friday.

Each of six patrons--L, M, N, O, P, and Q--will be assigned to exactly one of seven tables. The tables stand consecutively and are numbered 1 through 7, and each table is assigned no more than one patron. Table assignments must meet the following requirements:
N cannot be assigned to table 3, 5, or 7.
P and Q must sit at lower-numbered tables than M.
Tables 5, 6, and 7 must be occupied by a patron.
O sits at a higher-numbered table than M.

There are exactly seven office buildings numbered 1 through 7 on a street. Each building is occupied by exactly one of seven companies: A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. All of the buildings are on the same side of the street, which runs from east to west. Building 1 is the westernmost building. The following restrictions apply:
Company A does not occupy building 1, 3, 5, or 7.
Company C occupies the building immediately to the west of Company D.
Company B occupies one of the three westernmost buildings.
Company F is the third building to the east of Company E.
The easternmost building is not occupied by Company G.

A dance academy instructor must schedule eight dance classes--a charleston class, a foxtrot class, a jitterbug class, a limbo class, a polka class, a rumba class, a tango class, and a waltz class--for a single day. Exactly two classes will be scheduled at a time, and the scheduling must be made according to the following conditions:
The limbo class and the rumba class are not scheduled for the same time.
The charleston class and the polka class must be scheduled for the same time.
The limbo class is scheduled at some time after the polka class.
The rumba class and the waltz class are not scheduled for the same time.

If the tango class is scheduled for the same time as the foxtrot class, which one of the following must be true?
(A) The jitterbug class and the limbo class must be scheduled for the same time.
(B) The jitterbug class and the rumba class must be scheduled for the same time.
(C) The jitterbug class and the waltz class must be scheduled for the same time.
(D) The limbo class and the rumba class must be scheduled for the same time.
(E) The rumba class and the waltz class must be scheduled for the same time.

Answer choice (B) is correct. If F is scheduled with T, then only J remains to be paired with R.

A driver must pick up exactly eight passengers—P, R, S, T, V, X, Y, and Z—one at a time, not necessarily in that order. The pickups must be made in accordance with the following conditions:
Either T or V must be picked up fifth.
Either Y or Z must be picked up third.
The driver picks up exactly one passenger between picking up T and picking up Z.
S is picked up eighth when Y is picked up third.
Z must be picked up ahead of T.

If V is picked up fifth, which one of the following must be true?
(A) P is picked up first.
(B) R is picked up sixth.
(C) S is picked up eighth.
(D) X is picked up seventh.
(E) Z is picked up sixth.

Answer choice (C) is correct. If V is picked up fifth, Y must be picked up third, and when Y is picked up third then S must be picked up eighth.

A doctor must schedule nine patients—L, M, O, P, R, S, T, V, and X—during a given week, Monday through Sunday. At least one patient must be scheduled for each day, and the schedule must observe the following constraints:
M and S must be scheduled for the same day.
On the day P is scheduled, P must be the only patient scheduled to see the doctor.
Exactly one patient is scheduled for Wednesday.
T cannot be scheduled for Thursday.
If P is scheduled for Monday, then V and X must be scheduled for Saturday.
R is not scheduled for Thursday unless L is scheduled for Monday.

If L is scheduled for Monday, which one of the following must be true?
(A) R is scheduled for Thursday.
(B) V is scheduled for Saturday.
(C) S is scheduled for Saturday.
(D) P is not scheduled for Monday.
(E) V is not scheduled for Monday.

Which one of the following statements about the doctor's schedule must be true?
(A) The maximum number of patients scheduled for Monday is one.
(B) The maximum number of patients scheduled for Tuesday is two.
(C) The maximum number of patients scheduled for Friday is three.
(D) The minimum number of patients scheduled for Saturday is two.
(E) The minimum number of patients scheduled for Sunday is two.

Answer choice (D) is the correct answer. If L is scheduled for Monday, then according to the second rule P cannot be scheduled for Monday.

Answer choice (C) is correct since the maximum number of patients that can ever be scheduled for a single day is three (3-1-1-1-1-1-1).

Opposite of "Cannot Be True"

Opposite of "Could Be True"

Opposite of "Not Necessarily True"

Opposite of "Must Be True"

Not Necessarily True

[Logical Opposition]
If G is seated second, which one of the following could be true?

1 = Could Be True
4 = Cannot Be True

[Logical Opposition]
Which one of the following cannot be true?

1 = Cannot Be True
4 = Could Be True

[Logical Opposition]
If R is selected fifth, which one of the following must be true?

1 = Must Be True
4 = Not Necessarily True

[Logical Opposition]
Which one of the following must be true?

1 = Must Be True
4 = Not Necessarily True

[Logical Opposition]
Each of the following must be true except:

1 = Not Necessarily True
4 = Must Be True

"Must Be False"

"Not Necessarily False"

"Could Be False"

Not Necessarily True

"Cannot Be False"

an argument vs. a set of facts

An argument:

" All professors are ethical (premise). Mason is a professor (premise). So Mason is ethical (conclusion). "

A set of facts:

" The Jacksonville area has just over one million residents. The Cincinnati area has almost two million residents. The New York area has almost twenty million residents. "

(a set of facts does not include a conclusion)

TIP: Always read each of the five answer choices before deciding which answer is correct. ALWAYS choose the BEST answer.

TIP: On average, you have 1 minute and 25 seconds to complete each question.

What is a premise?

A fact, proposition, or statement from which a conclusion is made.

A premise gives a reason why something should be believed.

"What reasons has the author used to persuade me? Why should I believe this argument? What evidence exists?"

What is a conclusion?

A statement or judgement that follows from one or more reasons.

A conclusion is the point the author tries to prove by using another statement.

"What is the author driving at? What does the author want me to believe? What point follows from the others?"

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
Humans cannot live on Venus because the surface temperature is too high.

P: because the surface temperature is too high.
C: Humans cannot live on Venus.

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
The economy is in tatters. Therefore, we must end this war.

P: The economy is in tatters.
C: Therefore, we must end this war.

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
We must reduce our budget due to the significant cost overruns we experienced during production.

P: due to the significant cost overruns we experienced during production.

C: we must reduce our budget.

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
Fraud has cost the insurance industry
millions of dollars in lost revenue. Thus, congress will pass a stricter fraud control bill since the insurance industry has one of the most powerful lobbies.

P1: fraud has cost the insurance industry millions of dollars in lost revenue.

P2: since the insurance industry has one of the most powerful lobbies.

C: thus, congress will pass a stricter fraud control bill.

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
The data show that people who eat chocolate are generally happy people. As a result, more and more people are buying chocolates.

P: people who eat chocolate are generally happy people.

C: more and more people are buying chocolates.

TIP: Always identify the conclusion, if one exists.

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
Therefore, since higher debt has forced consumers to lower their savings, they now have less money to loan.

P: since higher debt has forced consumers to lower their savings

C: therefore, banks now have less money to loan.

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
Given that the price of steel is rising, we will no longer be able to offer discounts on our car parts.

P: given that the price of steel is rising

C: we will no longer be able to offer discounts on our car parts

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
The political situation in Somalia is unstable owing to the ability of individual warlords to maintain powerful armed forces.

P: owing to the ability of individual warlords to maintain powerful armed forces.

C: the political situation in Somalia is unstable.

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
Since we need to have many different interests to sustain us, the scientists' belief must be incorrect.

P: since we need to have many different interests to sustain us.

C: the scientists' belief must be incorrect.

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
So, as indicated by the newly released data, we should push forward with our efforts to recolonize the forest with snowy tree crickets.

P: as indicated by the newly released data.

C: so we should push forward with our efforts to recolonize the forest with snowy tree crickets.

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
Television has a harmful effect on society. This can be seen from the poor school performance of children who watch significant amounts of television and from the fact that children who watch more than six hours of television a day tend to read less than non-television watching children.

P1: This can be seen from the poor school performance of children who watch significant amounts of television

P2: from the fact that children who watch more than six hours of television a day tend to read less than non-television watching children.

C: Television has a harmful effect on society.

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
The rapid diminishment of the ecosystem of the Amazon threatens the entire planet. Consequently, we must take immediate steps to convince the Brazilian government that planned development projects need to be curtailed for the simple reason that these development projects will greatly accelerate the loss of currently protected land.

P1: The rapid diminishment of the ecosystem of the Amazon threatens the entire planet.

P2: for the simple reason that these development projects will greatly accelerate the loss of currently protected land.

C: Consequently, we must take immediate steps to convince the Brazilian government that planned development projects need to be curtailed

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
Every professor at Fillmore University teaches exactly one class per semester. Fillmore's Professor Jackson, therefore, is teaching exactly one class this semester. Moreover, I heard Professor Jackson say she was teaching only a single class.

P1: Every professor at Fillmore University teaches exactly one class per semester.

P2: Moreover, I heard Professor Jackson say she was teaching only a single class.

C: Fillmore's Professor Jackson, therefore, is teaching exactly one class this semester.

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
Wine is made by crushing grapes and eventually separating the juice from the grape skins. However, the separated juice contains impurities and many wineries do not filter the juice. These wineries claim the unfiltered juice ultimately produces a more flavorful and intense wine. Since these winemakers are experts, we should trust their judgement and not shy away from unfiltered wine.

P1: Wine is made by crushing grapes and eventually separating the juice from the grape skins.

P2: These wineries claim the unfiltered juice ultimately produces a more flavorful and intense wine.

P3: Since these winemakers are experts

CP: However, the separated juice contains impurities and many wineries do not filter the juice.

C: we should trust their judgement and not shy away from unfiltered wine.

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
Phenylketonurics are people who cannot metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine. There are dangers associated with phenylketonuria, and products containing phenylalanine must carry a warning label that states, "Phenylketonurics: contains phenylalanine." In addition, all children in developed societies receive a phenylketonuria test at birth. Hence, at the moment, we are doing as much as possible to protect against this condition.

P1: Phenylketonurics are people who cannot metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine.

P2: There are dangers associated with phenylketonuria, and products containing phenylalanine must carry a warning label that states, "Phenylketonurics: contains phenylalanine."

P3: In addition, all children in developed societies receive a phenylketonuria test at birth.

C: Hence, at the moment, we are doing as much as possible to protect against this condition.

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
During last nights robbery, the thief was unable to open the safe. Thus, last nights robbery was unsuccessful despite the fact that the thief stole several documents. After all, nothing in those documents was as valuable as the money in the safe.

P1: During last nights robbery, the thief was unable to open the safe.

P2: After all, nothing in those documents was as valuable as the money in the safe.

CP: despite the fact that the thief stole several documents.

C: Thus, last nights robbery was unsuccessful

Conclusion Identification Method

Because...

We can conclude that...

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
The best way of eliminating traffic congestion will not be easily found. There are so many competing possibilities that it will take millions of dollars to study every option, and implementation of most options carries an exorbitant price tag.

P: There are so many competing possibilities that it will take millions of dollars to study every option, and implementation of most options carries an exorbitant price tag.

C: The best way of eliminating traffic congestion will not be easily found.

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
Because the Vikings have the best quarterback in football, they therefore have the best offense in football. Because they have the best offense in football, they will win the Super Bowl next year.

P: Because the Vikings have the best quarterback in football

Sub-C: they therefore have the best offense in football

C: They will win the Super Bowl next year.

PREMISE/CONCLUSION
Anne: Halley's Comet, now in a part of its orbit relatively far from the Sun, recently flared brightly enough to be seen by telescope. No comet has ever been observed to flare so far from the Sun before, so such a flare must be highly unusual.

Sue: Nonsense. Usually no one bothers to try to observe comets when they are so far from the Sun. This flare was observed only because an observatory was tracking Halley's Comet very carefully.

P1: Halley's Comet, now in a part of its orbit relatively far from the Sun, recently flared brightly enough to be seen by telescope.

P2: No comet has ever been observed to flare so far from the Sun before

C: so such a flare must be highly unusual.

P: Usually no one bothers to try to observe comets when they are so far from the Sun.

C: This flare was observed only because an observatory was tracking Halley's Comet very carefully.

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for the reason that

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as indicated by

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this can be seen from

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we know this by

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Conclusion Indicator

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for this reason

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Counter-premise Indicator

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on the other hand

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What is, "to identify an inference"?

It means, to identify something that must be true.

What is an assumption?

An assumption is an unstated premise. It is what must be true in order for the argument to be true.

What is the difference between an inference and an assumption?

inference (something that must be true) is what follows from an argument (in other words, a conclusion).

P: People who read a lot of books are smart.
P: David reads a lot of books.
C: David is smart <-- This is an inference.

An assumption (unstated premise) is what is taken for granted while making an argument.

P: People who read a lot of books are smart.
P: David goes to the library every day.
C: David is smart.

Assumption: David reads books whenever he goes to the library.

What is, the scope of an argument?

The scope of an argument is the range to which the premises and conclusion encompass certain ideas.

For example, consider an argument discussing a new surgical technique. The ideas of surgery and medicine are within the scope of the argument. The idea of federal monetary policy, on the other hand, would not be within the scope of the argument.

An attack on the person rather than on the opponent's ideas.

"You shouldn't listen to him. He is an uneducated alcoholic."

the fallacy of accident

When a general rule is applied to a situation in which it was not intended to apply.

General rule: Birds normally can fly.
Fact: Penguins are birds.
Therefore, penguins can fly.

General rule: 55 mph speed limit on the road
Fact: It's raining, there's heavy fog, and it's dark out
Should we continue to go 55 mph? NO!

affirming the consequent

x->y to y->x

If it's a fish, then it lives under water.
If it lives under water, then it must be a fish.

denying the antecedent

x->y to (not y)->(not x)

If it's a fish, then it lives under water.
If it's not a fish, then it doesn't live under water.

The fallacy of ambiguous construction. It occurs
whenever the whole meaning of a statement can be taken in more than one way, and is usually the fault of careless grammar.

I met the ambassador riding his horse. He was snorting and steaming, so I gave him a lump of sugar.

tu quoque (too-KWO-kwee)

AKA the appeal to hypocrisy.
The "you too" argument.

"How can you tell me not to join the military? You did when you were young."

"Why should we listen to Brown's support for the new carpark when only last year he opposed the whole idea?"

"Nicole identified that Hannah had committed a logical fallacy, but instead of addressing the substance of her claim, Hannah accused Nicole of committing a fallacy earlier on in the conversation."

Something that draws attention away from the main issue.

"The police should stop environmental demonstrators from inconveniencing the general public. We pay our taxes. '"

"Surely global meltdown is infinitely worse than a little inconvenience?"

Words which are slanted for or against the subject.

Scotland stole a goal in the first half, but England's efforts were well rewarded in the second half when...

Can you guess which side the reporter comes from?

When an argument used to support a course of action would also support more of it.

The state should subsidize opera because it would be too expensive to mount productions without the extra support from public funds.

(And as the train heads off into the distance, wait for the stations marked son et lumière concerts, civil war re-enactments, and gladiatorial displays. If opera is different, we need to know why.)

post hoc fallacy

False assumption that because one event occurred before another event, it must have caused that event.

Bill purchases a new PowerMac and it works fine for months. He then buys and installs a new piece of software. The next time he starts up his Mac, it freezes. Bill concludes that the software must be the cause of the freeze.

The Republicans pass a new tax reform law that benefits wealthly Americans. Shortly thereafter the economy takes a nose dive. The Democrats claim that the the tax reform caused the economic woes and they push to get rid of it.

slippery slope fallacy

not all slippery slope arguments are fallacious.
if A happens, and then Z happens later, it doesn't necessarily mean that A caused Z to happen. This is a post hoc fallacy.

You said that if we allow A to happen, then Z will eventually happen too, therefore A should not happen.

The problem with this reasoning is that it avoids engaging with the issue at hand, and instead shifts attention to extreme hypotheticals. Because no proof is presented to show that such extreme hypotheticals will in fact occur, this fallacy has the form of an appeal to emotion fallacy by leveraging fear. In effect the argument at hand is unfairly tainted by unsubstantiated conjecture.

e.g. Colin Closet asserts that if we allow same-sex couples to marry, then the next thing we know we'll be allowing people to marry their parents, their cars and even monkeys.

deductive reasoning

reasoning from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect). "Teenagers cause the most car accidents. You're a teenager, you will get in a car accident."

inductive reasoning

reasoning from detailed facts to general principles.

e.g. All of the ice we have examined so far is cold. Therefore, all ice is cold."

You misrepresented someone's argument to make it easier to attack.

By exaggerating, misrepresenting, or just completely fabricating someone's argument, it's much easier to present your own position as being reasonable, but this kind of dishonesty serves to undermine honest rational debate.

e.g. After Will said that we should put more money into health and education, Warren responded by saying that he was surprised that Will hates our country so much that he wants to leave it defenceless by cutting military spending.

"Everyone is doing it so you should too."

You appealed to popularity or the fact that many people do something as an attempted form of validation.

The flaw in this argument is that the popularity of an idea has absolutely no bearing on its validity.
If it did, then the Earth would have made itself flat for most of history to accommodate this popular belief.

e.g. Shamus pointed a drunken finger at Sean and asked him to explain how so many people could believe in leprechauns if they're only a silly old superstition. Sean, however, had had a few too many Guinness himself and fell off his chair.

appeal to authority

You said that because an authority thinks something, it must therefore be true.

It's important to note that this fallacy should not be used to dismiss the claims of experts, or scientific consensus. Appeals to authority are not valid arguments, but nor is it reasonable to disregard the claims of experts who have a demonstrated depth of knowledge unless one has a similar level of understanding and/or access to empirical evidence. However it is, entirely possible that the opinion of a person or institution of authority is wrong; therefore the authority that such a person or institution holds does not have any intrinsic bearing upon whether their claims are true or not.

e.g. Not able to defend his position that evolution 'isn't true' Bob says that he knows a scientist who also questions evolution (and presumably isn't a primate).

loaded question

You asked a question that had a presumption built into it so that it couldn't be answered without appearing guilty.

Loaded question fallacies are particularly effective at derailing rational debates because of their inflammatory nature - the recipient of the loaded question is compelled to defend themselves and may appear flustered or on the back foot.

e.g. Grace and Helen were both romantically interested in Brad. One day, with Brad sitting within earshot, Grace asked in an inquisitive tone whether Helen was having any problems with a drug habit.

begging the question

You presented a circular argument in which the conclusion was included in the premise.

This logically incoherent argument often arises in situations where people have an assumption that is very ingrained, and therefore taken in their minds as a given. Circular reasoning is bad mostly because it's not very good.

e.g. The word of Zorbo the Great is flawless and perfect. We know this because it says so in The Great and Infallible Book of Zorbo's Best and Most Truest Things that are Definitely True and Should Not Ever Be Questioned.

Since always signals

Lower case 'since' means

That the preceding clause is the conclusion

When the conclusion introduces a term NOT mentioned in the evidence, the assumption will provide a..

Logical basis for the term

An Assumption is an..

Unstated gap b/w the evidence and conclusion

To help determine what an author's conclusion is, use the

One Sentence Test

Because is a key word to signal

Therefore is a key word to signal

In Formal Logic "The only " identifies

Suffucient Condition

All' Negated is

When an Assumption stimulus contains formal logicstatements, think about what can be deduced from each statement. In particular, identify the contrapositive because...

it is likely to be the correct answer

TIP- The same type of wrong answer will show up REPEATEDLY throughout the Logical Reasoning section the following are examples

(A) Most art is shocking ( C ) Art used to be more shocking than it currently is ( E ) Anything that shocks is art

In Formal Logic "Requires " identifies

None' Negated is

How does the Denial Test work

Deny the answer choice & see if it makes the conclusion fall apart

In Formal Logic "All " identifies

Suffucient Condition

More' Negated is

Less-than or Equal

What key words in a Logical Reasoning QUESTION indicates that you should use the denial test

Necessary, Depends, Required

In Formal Logic "Guarantees " identifies

Thus is a key word to signal

Fewer' Negated is

More than or Equal

In Formal Logic "Never " identifies

Mutually Exclusive

Common Argument Structure
C: We Should/Should not...
E: One reason "X" is good/bad
A:
S:
W:

A: There are no other considerations to take into account

S: This reason is particularly IMPORTANT/ Eliminating another possible factor

W:There is another factor that is relevant

Studies suggest' signals

Common Argument Structure
C: One caused the other
E: Two things are correlated (Occur Together)
A:
S:
W:

A:Correlation wasn't a coincidence, due to third factor, or due to reversed causation

S:Eliminating the possibility of coincidence, third factor, or reversal; or stregthening the liklihood that the first really causes the 2nd

W: Evidence that the correlation may really be just a coincidence, due to a third factor or reversed

Must be' Negated is

Common Argument Structure
C: The First thing did Cause the Second
E: One thing can cause another
A:
S:
W:

A: There is no other possible explanation for the 2nd event to occur

S:Eliminate other possible explanations

W: Suggest an alternative explanation

In Formal Logic " Incapable" identifies

Suffucient Condition

For is a key word to signal

Common Argument Structure
C: The event did not occur at all
E: Something did no occur in a particular way
A:
S:
W:

A:The event could not have happened for any other reason

S:Eliminate other possible reasons the event could have occured

W:Give another possible way for the event to have occured

Common Argument Structure
C: The Event WILL occur
E: Reason an event is likely to occur
A:
S:
W:

A:The evidence is relevant to the prediction; there isn't some other factor that's not being taken into account

S: The basis for the prediction is more relevant

W: Some other factor that makes the given basis for the prediction less important/less relevant

Can be' Negated is

This shows' signals

In Formal Logic "Must " identifies

All except Z are Y translats to

It is clear' signals

In Formal Logic "Neither....nor " identifies

Mutually Exclusive

Either Y or Z translats to

Y needs z translats to

Z is needed for Y translats to

In Formal Logic " If " identifies

Suffucient Condition

It follows that' signals

Y depends on Z translats to

Without Z, Y translats to

If ~Y --->Z
If ~Z ---> ~Y

From the fact that' signals

"After all' Signals

X if, but only if Y translats to

X ---> Y
AND
Y---->X

In Formal Logic " Any" identifies

Suffucient Condition

C: X-->Z
E: X--> Y
A: ?

That is why' signals

In Formal Logic "Necessary " identifies

C: X-->Z
E: Y--> Z
A: ?

C: X-->W
E: X--> Y
E: Z --> W
A: ?

If presented w/ an answer choice that is difficult to comprehend then...?

The more confussing it is , the more likely the answer choice is a distracter

In Formal Logic "None " identifies

Mutually Exclusive

Clearly is a key word that signals

A is a lower numbered position than B....Scribe as...

So is a key word to signal

In Formal Logic "Bound to lead to " identifies

A gets out at some time after B....Scribe as...

A gets out some time before B....Scribe as...

In Formal Logic "Every " identifies

Suffucient Condition

A gets out at some time before B but after C....Scribe as...

A gets out immediately before B....Scribe as...

Consequently is a key word to signal

In Formal Logic "Cannot " identifies

Mutually Exclusive

A gets out immediately after B....Scribe as...

In Formal Logic "Are destined to " identifies

Exactly one person gets out after A but before B....Scribe as...

A is exactly two positions before B....Scribe as...

In Formal Logic "Impossible " identifies

Mutually Exclusive

At least one person gets out after A but before B ....Scribe as...

In Formal Logic "Incapable " identifies

Mutually Exclusive

Obviously is a key word to signal

Exactely one person gets out b/w A and B ....Scribe as...

It is clear from" signals

In Formal Logic "Only (if) " identifies

A is imediately next to B....Scribe as...

M got out after either V or G but not both....Scribe as...

V...M...G AND G...M...V
or
V//G...M...G/V

In Formal Logic "No " identifies

Mutually Exclusive

This proves that' signals

A can come neither immediately before nor immediately after B....Scribe as...

AB BA (With line through them)

In Formal Logic "Whenever " identifies

Suffucient Condition

A is forth, B is seventh....Scribe as...

A₄ --> B₇
B ̰₇ --> A ̰₄

In Formal Logic "Results in " identifies

If A is not seventh, he is fith

A ̰₇ --> A ₅
A ̰₅ -->A ₇

In Formal Logic "Always " identifies

Hence is a key word to signal

In Formal Logic "Unless " identifies

A is in a group with exactly two members ....scribe as...

A _ _ (Boxed in)

In Formal Logic "Produces " identifies

As a result' signals

A and B are always in the same group....scribe as...

In Formal Logic "Each " identifies

Suffucient Condition

If she selects K, she nust select M ...Scribe as ...

K --> M
~M ---> ~K

A is not selected unless B is selected....scribe as...

A ---> B
~ B ---> ~ A

In Formal Logic "Then " identifies

If George buys A, then he does not buy B....Scribe as....

A ---> ~ B
B ---> ~ A

If George does not buy A, then he buys B

~ A --> B
~ B --> A
This rule says we must have A, or B, or both

In Formal Logic "Sure to " identifies

If she selects G, she can select neither H nor Y...scribe as...

G---> ~H and ~Y
H or Y --> ~G

Either A or B must be selected, but A and B cannot both be selected....scribe as...

Abstract Rules & Considerations
J and K have at least one symptom in common...Question you ask yourself?

What symptom could that be?

Abstract Rules & Considerations
L has greater number of symptoms than K... Question you ask yourself?

How many could L have how many could K have?

Abstract Rules & Considerations
Exactly twice as many people are in group 1 as in group 2. ...Question you ask yourself?

How many people can be in group one?

Abstract Rules & Considerations
Exactly one entity is in every group. ...Question you ask yourself?

Which entity could that be? Must it be? Could it be not?

Section Strategy

The most effective and efficient order approach the section:
choose your passage # of questions and degree of difficulty
Read the passage strategically
Identify the Question Type
Research the Relevant Text
Make a Prediction
Evaluate the Answer Choices

• Identify the topic
• Scope
• Purpose
• Main idea

• Global
• Detail
• Inference
• Logic Function
• Logic Reasoning

Global Questions

• Identify the question type: "Main idea", "Purpose", "Organization"
• Task: Think big picture, Review T/S/P/MI, Consult you roadmap
• You should be able to predict an answer to most Global questions
• Do global questions first
• Global questions are usually the first and next to last questions

Detail Questions

• Identify the question type: "According to the author", "The passage states", "the author mentions"
• Task: Research the relevant text

Inference Questions

• Identify the question type: "the author implies", "the passage suggests", "likely to agree"
• Task: Read between the lines, Perhaps combine statements, Identify what must follow from the passage
• Inference means "must be true". It's a statement that must be true if everything in the stimulus is true.
• Inference questions require you to paraphrase the relevant text or make a deduction
• Common wrong answer choices; 180, faulty use of detail, extreme, out of scope
• Answer inference questions after you've already picked up points with Global and Detail questions
• The correct answer to an inference question doesn't require any information that isn't included in the stimulus
• Valid inferences aren't necessarily mind-blowing
• Beware of extreme wording in inference answer choices
• The correct answer doesn't have to take the entire stimulus into account

Logical Function Questions

• Identify the question type: "the author...primarily in order to", "primary purpose of the first passage", "best describes the function of"
• Task: Looks at the context of the detail or paragraph and ask why the author put it there
• Common wrong answer choices; 180, distortion, faulty use of detail

Logical Reasoning Questions

• Identify the question type: Will mimic LR question types, including
o strengthening / weakening - "supports" / "undermines"
o Principle - "principle"
o Parallel Reasoning - "analogies"
• Task: Use the appropriate LR strategy

Common Logical Reasoning & Reading Comp Wrong Answer Types

• Extreme Language
• Faulty use of detail
• Outside of scope
• 180
• Distortion
• Half Right, Half Wrong
• Irrelevant Comparison

Reading Strategically

Whatever strategy you choose, you should give the passage or pair of passages at least one careful reading before answering the questions. Try to distinguish main ideas from supporting ideas, and opinions or attitudes from factual, objective information. Note transitions from one idea to the next and identify the relationships among the different ideas or parts of a passage, or between the two passages in Comparative Reading sets. Consider how and why an author makes points and draws conclusions. Be sensitive to implications of what the passages say.

Roadmap the Text

You may find it helpful to mark key parts of passages. For example, you might underline main ideas or important arguments, and you might circle transitional words—"although," "nevertheless," "correspondingly," and the like—that will help you map the structure of a passage. Also, you might note descriptive words that will help you identify an author's attitude toward a particular idea or person.
• Always circle colon
• Always circle a question mark

Locate and use keywords

• Logic - Evidence and Conclusion (Therefore..., Since...)
• Contrast (However...)
• Continuation (Moreover...)
• Illustration (Examples of...)
• Emphasis / Opinion (Critics, Voices, Even)
• Sequence / Timing (Frame of reference, Dates, More Recently)

Contrast Keywords

But Despite
Yet Although
However Even So
Nevertheless Whereas
On the other hand Conversely
Instead

Emphasis Keywords

Remarkable (more / most) important
Compelling Substantial
Even more than

Opinion Keywords

Believed by Thought to be
Asserts Some maintain
Argues that According to
As X sees it The astronomers assumed

Contrast Keywords

; In addition
Also As well
Similarly Likewise

Illustration Keywords

: In contrast to
For example

Temporal Keywords

Since Until recently
Recent developments In the past
Historically Traditionally

Numerical Keywords

Three possible explanations There are two reasons for this
Abrams describes a fourfold structure

Evidence Keywords

Because Since
This is clear from

Conclusion Keywords

Thus Clearly as a result
And so

Words that reveal the author's viewpoint - Negative

Doubtful Unconvincing
Unlikely Danger
Harmful

Words that reveal the author's viewpoint - Positive

Cogent Completing
Promising

Words that reveal the author's viewpoint - Uncertainty / Qualification

Seems Appears
Mysterious

• Proper Nouns & Names; look for same key word in the text or margin notes
• Line Reference; context is key. Look at the surrounding paragraph (+/- 2 sentences)
• Direct Quotes; context is key. Who is quoted (author, critic) Associated Keywords
• Paragraph References; consider paragraph in totality. Consider paragraph in context of larger argument
• Content Clues; word or phrase of the text. What paragraph. Look for associated key words

Comparative Reading

• Two short passages
• 6-8 questions

Testing Strategy

• Expect questions that reward your ability to identify points of agreement and disagreement between the passages

Related questions

QUESTION

What is denying the antecedent? Is this type of reasoning valid or invalid?

8 answers

QUESTION

The term that occurs once in each premise is called the bridge term.

5 answers

QUESTION

What makes an ad hominem fallacious?

6 answers

QUESTION

What are the "three A's" of analyzing arguments?

12 answers

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