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Chapter 3 Hum D

Terms in this set (116)

accommodation
1) In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the process of changing existing schemes in order to account for novel elements in the object or the event.
active engagement
Continuing to be sociable and involved in doing things as you get older.
adaptation
(1) In evolutionary theory, the total process of change in response to environmental conditions.
adaptive self-organization
The process by which an open system retains its essential identity when confronted with new and constant environmental conditions.
adaptive self-regulation
Adjustments made by an operating system in which feedback mechanisms identify and respond to environmental changes in order to maintain and enhance the functioning of the system.
affect
Emotion, feeling, or mood.
applied behavioral analysis
An intervention that uses systematic operant conditioning strategies to assist people who have severe behavior problems, including aggressive disorders and autism.
assimilation
In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the process of incorporating objects or events into existing schemes.
boundaries
In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the process of incorporating objects or events into existing schemes.
chronosystem
In Bronfenbrenner's theory, this is the temporal dimension: Individiduals, the systems in which they are embedded, and resources all may change over time.
classical conditioning
A form of learning in which a formerly neutral stimulus is repeatedly presented together with a stimulus that evokes a specific reflexive response. After repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus elicits a response similar to the reflexive response.
cognition
The capacity for knowing, organizing perceptions, and problem solving.
cognitive competencies
A person's knowledge, skills, and abilities.
cognitive map
An internal mental representation of the environment
cognitive unconscious
The range of mental structures and processes that operate outside awareness but play a significant role in conscious thought and action.
collectivism
Worldview in which social behavior is guided largely by the shared goals of a family, tribe, work group, or other collective.
concrete operational thought
In Piaget's theory, a stage of cognitive development in which rules of logic can be applied to observable or manipulable physical relations.
continuity
A condition that characterizes a culture when a child is given information and responsibilities that apply directly to his or her adult behavior.
continuous reinforcement
In operant conditioning, the schedule in which reinforcement is given on every learning trial.
cultural determinism
The theoretical concept that culture shapes individual experience.
cultural pathways
adults in each culture have values and goals for themselves and for their children that shape and organize the socialization process and activities of daily life.
cultural tools
Symbol systems such as language of one's society that permit individuals to alter their environments and guide regulate and redefine themselves.
defense mechanism
A technique, usually unconscious, that attempts to alleviate the anxiety caused by the conflicting desires of the id and the superego in relation to impulses (e.g., repression, denial, projection).
developmental systems theory
This perspective emphasizes the ongoing interaction and integration across many levels of the human organism from the genetic to the behavioral level, within the nested contexts of the person, family, community, and culture, to consider both continuity and change over individual and historical time.
discontinuity
A condition that characterizes a culture when a child is either barred from activities that are open only to adults or forced to unlearn information or behaviors that are accepted in children but considered inappropriate for adults.
disequilibrium
In Piaget's theory, a condition when changes in the organism or changes in the environment require a revision of schemes or mental structures.
ecological niche
The position or function of an organism in a community of plants and animals.
efficacy
The capacity for producing a desired result, including planning intentional actions, guiding and directing one's own behaviors toward a goal, and reflecting on one's actions to assess their quality, impact, and purpose.
ego
In psychosexual theory, the mental structure that experiences and interprets reality. The ego includes most cognitive capacities, including perception, memory, reasoning, and problem solving.
egocentric speech
In Piaget's observation, toddlers use this to control and direct their behavior. The speech is considered egocentric because it is not intended to communicate with anyone else and often doesn't make sense to anyone else. Vygotsky suggested that egocentric speech is a component of the problem-solving function.
ego-centrism
The perception of oneself at the center of the world; the view that others and events base their behavior on or occur as a result of one's own perceptions.
encodings
In cognitive behaviorism, the constructs that a person has about the self, the situation, and others in the situation.
enculturation
The process by which culture carriers teach, model, reward, punish, and use other symbolic strategies to transmit critical practices and values.
equilibrium
In Piaget's theory, the balance that every organism strives to attain in which organized structures (sensory, motor, or cognitive) provide effective ways of interacting with the environment.
ethology
The comparative investigation of the biological basis of behavior from an evolutionary perspective, to determine the proximal causes of behavioral acts, the relative contribution of inheritance and learning to these acts, and the adaptive significance and evolutionary history of different patterns of behavior within and across species.
evolutionary psychology
The study of the long-term, historical origins of behavior.
exosystem
One or more settings that do not involve the developing person as an active participant but in which events occur that affect or are affected by what happens in the setting containing the developing person.
expectancies
Expectations about one's ability to perform, the consequences of one's behavior, and the meaning of events in one's environment.
expectations
Views held by oneself or by others about what would be appropriate behavior in a given situation or at a given stage of development.
extinction
(1) In psychosocial theory, the negative pole of the psychosocial crisis of very old age, in which it is feared that the end of one's life is the end of all continuity.
feedback
The process by which a system, often biological or ecological, is modulated, controlled, or changed by the product, output, or response it produces.
feedback loop
The section of a control system that allows for feedback and self-correction and that adjusts its operation according to differences between the actual output and the desired output.
feedback mechanisms
In systems theory, the operations in an open system that produce adaptive self regulation by identifying and responding to changes in the environment.
fitness
(1) The genetic contribution of an individual to the next generation's gene pool relative to the average for the population, usually measured by the number of that individual's offspring or close kin that survive to reproductive age.
formal operational thought
In Piaget's theory, the final stage of cognitive development, characterized by reasoning, hypothesis generation, and hypothesis testing.
goal
The result or achievement toward which effort is directed.
id
In psychoanalytic theory, the mental structure that expresses impulses and wishes. Much of the content of the id is unconscious.
identification
The process through which one person incorporates the values and beliefs of a valued other such as a parent.
imitation
Repetition of another person's words, gestures, or behaviors.
inclusive fitness
The fitness of an individual organism as measured by the survival and reproductive success of its kin, each relative being valued according to the probability of shared genetic information, an offspring or sibling having a value of 50% and a first cousin 25%.
individualism
Worldview in which social behavior is guided largely by personal goals, ambitions, and pleasures.
inner speech
Language spoken softly or even silently to the self which guides behavior. In Vygostky's theory, the internalization of social language; a transition between spoken language and thought.
interdependence
A condition in which systems depend on each other, or in which all the elements in a system rely on one another for their continued growth.
intermental
In Vygotsky's theory, understanding or shared meaning between two or more people.
intermittent reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement that varies the amount of time or the number of trials between reinforcements.
latency stage
In Freud's psycho-sexual theory, the fourth life stage, during which no significant conflicts or impulses are assumed to arise. Superego development proceeds during this period.
macrosystem
Refers to consistencies in the form and content of lower order systems (micro-, meso-, and exosystems) that exist or could exist at the level of the subculture or the culture as a whole, along with any belief systems of ideology underlying such consistencies.
mesosystem
The interrelations among two or more settings in which the developing person actively participates (e.g., for a child, the relations between home, school, and neighborhood peer groups; for an adult, between family, work, and social life)
metacognition
Thinking about one's own thinking, including what individuals understand about their reasoning capacities and about how information is organized, how knowledge develops, how reality is distinguished from belief or opinion, how to achieve a sense of certainty about what is known, and how to improve understanding.
microsystem
A pattern of activities, roles, and interpersonal relations experienced by the developing person in a given setting with specific physical and material characteristics.
natural selection
A process whereby those individuals best suited to the characteristics of the immediate environment are most likely to survive and reproduce.
negative reinforcer
In operant conditioning, a stimulus - such as an electric shock - that increases the rate of response when removed.
object relations
The component of ego development that is concerned with the self, self-understanding, and self-other relationships.
object relations theory
A modern adaptation of psychoanalytic theory that places less emphasis on the drives of aggression and sexuality as motivational forces and more emphasis on human relationships as the primary motivational force in life
observation
A research method in which behavior is watched and recorded.
open system
A structure that maintains its organization even though its parts constantly change.
operant conditioning
A form of learning in which new responses are strengthened by the presentation of reinforcements.
physical culture
Encompasses the objects, technologies, structures, tools, and other artifacts of a culture.
positive reinforcer
In operant conditioning, a stimulus - such as food or a smile - that increases the rate of response when present.
preoperational thought
In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the stage in which representational skills are acquired.
punishment
(1) A penalty or negative experience imposed on a person for improper behavior.
reinforcement
In operant conditioning, the application of any stimulus that makes the repetition of a response more likely.
role enactment
Patterned characteristics of social behavior that one performs as a result of being in a specific role.
role expectations
Shared expectations for behavior that are linked to a social role.
role strain
The conflict and competing demands made by several roles that the person holds simultaneously.
rule
Principle or regulation governing conduct, action, procedure, or ritual.
schedules of reinforcement
The frequency and regularity with which reinforcements are given.
scheme
In Piaget's theory, the organization of actions into a unified whole, a mental construct.
self-regulatory plan
A strategy for achieving one's goals, including techniques for managing internal emotional states, creating a plan, and putting the plan into action.
sensorimotor intelligence
In Piaget's theory of development, the first stage of cognitive growth, during which schemes are built on sensory and motor experiences.
social cognition
Concepts related to understanding interpersonal behavior and the point of view of others.
social culture
Encompasses the norms, roles, beliefs, values, rites, and customs of a culture.
social identity
The aspect of the self-concept that is based on membership in a group or groups and the importance and emotional salience of that membership.
social learning theory
A theory of learning that emphasizes the ability to learn new responses through observation and imitation of others
social role
A set of behaviors that have some socially agreed-upon functions and for which there exists an accepted code of norms, such as the role of teacher, child, or minister.
social role theory
The theory that emphasizes participation in varied and more complex roles as a major factor in human development.
superego
In psychoanalytic theory, the mental function that embodies moral precepts and moral sanctions. The superego includes the ego ideal, or the goals toward which one strives, as well as the punishing conscience.
ultrasound
A technique for producing visual images of the fetus in utero through a pattern of deflected sound waves.
unconscious
Psychological processes that occur outside of awareness, including problem solving.
value
A principle or quality that is intrinsically desirable.
vicarious reinforcement
Through observing others, a person can learn a behavior and also acquire the motivation to perform the behavior or resist performing that behavior depending on what is observed about the consequences of that behavior.
worldview
A way of making meaning of the relationships, situations, and objects encountered in daily life in a culture.
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
Natural Selection
Fitness
Inclusive Fitness
Adaptation
Extinction
Ecological Niche
Speciation
Ethology
Evolutionary Psychology
Psycho Sexual Theory
Drives
Conscious
Preconscious
Unconscious
ID
EGO
Superego
Primary Process Thought
Pleasurable Principle
Reality Principle
Secondary Process Thought
Stages of Development: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital
Identification
Oedipal Conflict
Electra Conflict
Defense Mechanisms
Object Relations Theory
Cognitive Development Theory
Piaget's Theory
Equilibrium
Adaptation
Assimilation
Accommodation
Sensorimotor Intelligence
Preoperational Thought
Concrete Operational Thought
Formal Operational Thought
Metacognition
Cognitive Development Theory
Vygotsky's Theory
Culture
Tools
Language
Intermental Processes
Intramental Processes
Speech
Inner Speech
Egocentric Speech
Zone of Proximal Development
Cultural Theory
Culture
Physical Culture
Social Culture
Worldview
Cultural Pathways
Cultural Determinism
Enculturation
Continuity
Discontinuity
Rites of Passage
Collectivism
Individualism
Globalization
Social Role Theory
Social Role
Role Enactment
Role Expectations
Reciprocal Roles
Social Identity
Role Strain
Systems Theory
System
Open System
Adaptation
Adaptive Self Regulation
Adaptive Self organization
Feedback
Microsystem
Mesosystem
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Chronosystem
Boundries
Rules
Interdependence
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
The Emergence and Modification of Species as a result of Natural selection.
Psycho Sexual Theory
The origins and development of mental life
Cognitive Development Theory
The origins and development of cognition
Learning Theories
The formation of relatively permanent changes in behavior shared by groups and transmitted from one generation to the next
Cultural Theory
Learned Systems of meanings and patterns of behavior shared by groups
Social Role Theory
Socially constructed roles and role relationships that bridge the individual and society
Systems Theory
Processes that account for continuity and change in complex systems
According to psychosexual theory, what are the two instinctual drives that contribute to personality development?
a. sexuality and aggression
In psychosexual theory, development is divided into ________ stages.
d. five
What is Piaget trying to explain in his cognitive development theory?
c. The process for how the capacity for logical thought develops.
The first stage in Piaget's cognitive developmental theory is:
b. sensorimotor intelligence.
What are the central concepts of Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development?
b. culture, zone of proximal development, and movement from intermental to the intramental
What is the zone of proximal development?
d. Length of time needed to assimilate.
Which of the following is not considered a theory of learning?
a. cognitive development
According to operant conditioning, which reinforcement schedule results in behavior that is most vulnerable to extinction?
b. Every correct response is reinforced.
Social cognition is considered:
d. a trend in social learning theory emphasizing a cognitive orientation.
Which of the following terms refers to the system of meanings and patterns of behavior that are shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next?
d. culture
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