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Module 6

Terms in this set (113)

memory
an active system that receives information from the senses, puts that information into a usable form, and organizes it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage
encoding
the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain's storage systems
storage
holding on to information for some period of time
retrieval
getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used
information-processing model
model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of 3 stages
parallel distributed processing (PDP) model
a model of memory in which memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections
levels-of-processing model
model of memory that assumes information that is more "deeply processed," or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time
sensory memory
the very first stage of memory, where raw information from the senses is held for a very brief period of time
iconic memory
visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second
eidetic imagery
the ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more
echoic memory
auditory sensory memory, lasting only 2-4 seconds
short-term memory (STM)
the memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used
selective attention
the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input
working memory
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maintenance rehearsal
practice of saying some information to be remembered over and over in one's head in order to maintain it in short-term memory
long-term memory (LTM)
the system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently
elaborative rehearsal
a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way
nondeclarative (implicit) memory
type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses; memories are not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect conscious behavior
procedural memory
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anterograde amnesia
loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories
declarative (explicit) memory
type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known
semantic memory
type of declarative memory containing general knowledge, such as knowledge of language and information learned in formal education
episodic memory
type of declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others, such as daily activities and events
semantic network model
model of memory organization that assumes information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion, with concepts that are related stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related
prospective memory
a form of memory that involves remembering to perform a particular task at a particular time
mnemonic devices
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retrieval cue
a stimulus for remembering
encoding specificity
glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream
recall
type of memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be "pulled" from memory with very few external cues
recognition
the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact
serial position effect
tendency of information at the beginning and end of a body of information to be remembered more accurately than information in the middle of the body of information
primacy effect
tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows
recency effect
tendency to remember information at the end of a body of information better than the information that precedes it
false positive
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automatic encoding
tendency of certain kinds of information to enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding
flashbulb memories
type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it
constructive processing
referring to the retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised, or influenced by newer information
hindsight bias
the tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer information, that one could have correctly predicted the outcome of an event
misinformation effect
the tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself
curve of forgetting
a graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning a list and then tapers off gradually
distributed practice
spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods
encoding failure
failure to process information into memory
memory trace
physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed
decay
loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used
disuse
another name for decay, assuming that memories that are not used will eventually decay and disappear
proactive interference
memory problem that occurs when older information prevents or interferes with the learning or retrieval of newer information
retroactive interference
memory problem that occurs when newer information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older information
consolidation
the changes that take place in the structure and functioning of neurons when a memory is formed
retrogade amnesia
loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past
anterograde amnesia
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Alzheimer's disease
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infantile amnesia
the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3
autobiographical memory
the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story
effortful processing
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thinking (cognition)
mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and communicating information to others
concepts
ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities
prototype
an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of the concept
schemas
the concept or framework that organizes the information
problem solving
process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways
decision making
process of cognition that involves identifying, evaluating, and choosing among several alternatives
trial and error (mechanical solution)
problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found
algorithms
very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems
heuristic
mental shortcut based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem; aka "rule of thumb"
representativeness heuristic
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availability heuristic
estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it is for us to think of related examples
functional fixedness
a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions
mental set
the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past
confirmation bias
the tendency to search for evidence that fits one's beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs
framing
how an issue is phrased; affects decision making
cognitive psychologists
psychologists who study the way people think, remember, and mentally organize information
superordinate concept
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subordinate concept
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mental images
mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picturelike quality
trial and error
problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found
algorithm
very specific, step-by-step procedure for solving certain types of problems
insight
the sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly
overconfidence
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creativity
the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways
convergent thinking
type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic
divergent thinking
type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point
intelligence
the ability to learn from one's experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems
g factor
the ability to reason and solve problems, or general intelligence
triarchic theory of intelligence
Sternberg's theory that there are three kinds of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical
analytical intelligence
the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving
creative intelligence
the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems
practical intelligence
the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful
intelligence quotient (IQ)
a number representing a measure of intelligence, resulting from the division of one's mental age by one's chronological age and then multiplying that quotient by 100
deviation IQ scores
a type of intelligence measure that assumes that IQ is normally distributed around a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of about 15
crystallized intelligence
accumulated knowledge and verbal skills that tend to increase with age
fluid intelligence
ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease in late adulthood
intellectual disability (intellectual development disorder)
condition in which a person's behavioral and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stages than the skills of others who are the same chronological age; may also be referred to as developmentally delayed; aka mental retardation
gifted
the 2% of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possessing an IQ of 130 or above
emotional intelligence
the awareness of and ability to manage one's own emotions to facilitate thinking and attain goals, as well as the ability to understand emotions in others
heritability
degree to which the changes in some trait within a population can be considered to be due to genetic influences; the extent individual genetic differences affect individual differences in observed behavior; in IQ, proportion of change in IQ within a population that is caused by hereditary factors
stereotype threat
condition in which being made aware of a negative performance stereotype interferes with the performance of someone that considers himself or herself part of that group
reliability
the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people
validity
the degree to which a test actually measures what it's supposed to measure
aptitude tests
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achievement tests
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language
a system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others
grammar
the system of rules governing the structure and use of a language
phonemes
the basic units of sound in language
morphemes
the smallest units of meaning within a language
syntax
the system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences
semantics
the rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences
pragmatics
aspects of language involving the practical ways of communicating with others, or the social "niceties" of language
linguistic relativity hypothesis
the theory that thought processes and concepts are controlled by language
cognitive universalism
theory that concepts are universal and influence the development of language
babbling stage
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telegraphic stage
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overgeneralization
distortion of thinking in which a person draws sweeping conclusions based on only one incident or event and applies those conclusions to events that are unrelated to the original; the tendency to interpret a single negative event as a neverending pattern of defeat and failure
language acquisition device
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nativist theory of language acquisition
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