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Terms in this set (1464)
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, developed a theory of how cognition develops and changes over time. Piaget proposed that a child's intellect progresses through four stages: 1. Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) 2. Preoperational (2 to 7 years) 3. Concrete operational (7 to 11 years) 4. Formal operational (11 years to adulthood) Children learn through active interaction and manipulation of the environment. The stage the child is in determines how they see the world. Piaget believed all students pass through the stages in order and cannot skip any stage.
Schemes
Mental patterns that guide behavior; cognitive structures that help children process and organize information to make sense of the environment
Assimilation
Understanding new experiences in terms of existing schemes
Accommodation
Modifying existing schemes to fit new situations in the environment. When old ways of dealing with the environment don't work, a child modifies an existing scheme stimulated by new information or a new experience
Adaptation
The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment through assimilation or accommodation. According to Piaget, this is how learning occurs.
Equilibration
The process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences. According to Piaget, learning depends on this process so it is important for teachers to confront students with new experiences or data to advance their cognitive development.
Disequilibrium
7 of 124
Disequilibrium
An imbalance between what a child understands and what the child encounters through new experiences.
Sensorimotor Stage
The earliest stage (birth to 2 years) of cognitive development during which infants learn about the environment by using their senses and motor skills. Children develop "object permanence" and progress from reflexive behavior to goal-directed behavior.
Object Permanence
The fact that objects are physically stable and exist even when the objects are not in the child's physical presence. This enables the child to start using symbols to represent things in their minds so they can think about them.
Preoperational Stage
The second stage (2 to 7 years) of cognitive development in which children learn to represent things in their mind. During this stage students develop the ability to use symbols to represent objects in the world. Thinking remains egocentric and centered.
Egocentric
Believing that everyone sees the world as you do.
Conservation
The concept that certain properties of an object remain the same regardless of changes in other properties.
Centration
Paying attention to only one aspect of an object or situation; what is commonly called tunnel vision.
Reversibility
The ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse thinking to return to the starting point.
Class Inclusion
The ability to think simultaneously about a whole class of objects and about relationships among subordinate classes; a framework for thinking.
Concrete Operational Stage
The third stage (7 to 11 years) of cognitive development in which children develop the capacity for logical reasoning and understanding of conservation but can use the skills only in dealing with familiar situations. New abilities include operations that are reversible. Thinking is decentered, allowing them to understand that others may have different perceptions, and problem solving is less restricted by egocentrism. Abstract thinking is not possible.
Inferred Reality
The ability to understand stimuli in the context of relevant information. Preschoolers see what they see with little ability to infer the meaning behind what they see. Students in the concrete operational stage respond to inferred reality and see things in the context of other meanings.
Seriation
Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, volume, etc. Seriation involves arranging things in a logical progression such as from smallest to largest or shortest or tallest.
Transivity
A skill learned during the concrete operational stage in which children can mentally arrange and compare objects. Transitivity is the ability to infer a relationship between two objects on the basis of knowledge of their respective relationships with a third object. (If a>b and b>c, then a>c)
Inversion
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. (+X is reversed by -X)
Reciprocity
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. (MM)
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, developed a theory of cognitive development based on two key ideas. He proposed children understand the world based on social interactions within their culture and the sign systems that represent ideas. These systems include symbols used to think, solve problems, and communicate. Vygotsky's theory highlights the socio-cultural nature of learning.
Self-regulation
According to Vygotsky's theory, self-regulation is the ability to think and solve problems without the help of others. Learning is a social process and learning occurs when self-regulation is achieved.
Sign Systems
Symbols that cultures create to help people think, solve problems, and communicate.
Private Speech
Inner speech or children's self-talk that guides thinking and actions; an important consideration in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development.
Zone of Proximal Development
Level of development immediately above a student's present level. The tasks within the zone of proximal development require assistance from the teacher or a more knowledgeable other. Students cannot perform tasks alone within the zone of proximal development. Activities designed within this zone are guided activities.
Scaffolding
Support for learning and problem solving that include clues, reminders, examples, or encouragement. Scaffolding allows a student to make a learning connection and become independent as a learner.
Cooperative Learning
Strategies in which students work together to help one another learn by sharing perspectives and providing models of slightly advanced thinking.
Developmentally Appropriate Education
Instruction intentionally adapted to the current developmental level of students rather than planned according their chronological age or grade level.
Psychosocial Theory
A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development.
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Trained by Freud as a psychoanalyst, Erikson proposed people pass through eight psychosocial stages of development. A psychosocial crisis is resolved at each stage.
Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
Part of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development addresses children's moral reasoning. Piaget proposed that as children's thinking becomes more advanced their understanding of moral problems deepens. 1. Heteronomous Morality (based on rules and consequences) 2. Autonomous Morality (based on mutual respect and recognition)
Heteronomous Morality
According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the younger stage when children think rules are unchangeable and that breaking rules leads to punishment.
Autonomous Morality
According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the older stage when children understand that rules are created and that punishments are not automatic.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning
Lawrence Kohlberg proposed students pass through three levels and six stages of moral reasoning: I. Preconventional Level Stage 1 Punishment and Obedience Orientation Stage 2 Instrumental Realist Orientation II. Conventional Level Stage 3 "Good boy-Good girl" Orientation Stage 4 "Law and Order" Orientation III. Postconventional Level Stage 5 Social Contract Orientation Stage 6 Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
Preconventional Level of Morality
Stages 1 and 2 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which children make moral decisions in their own interests to avoid punishments. Safety is the main consideration.
Conventional Level of Morality
Stages 3 and 4 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning during which children make moral decisions in consideration of others. Fairness is the main consideration.
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
Social class defined in terms of income, occupation, education, possessions, and prestige in society. A measure of prestige within a social group.
Ethnicity
A culture, history, and sense of identity shared by a group of people; a way of life. A shared cultural heritage and traditions often based on race, religion, language, or national identity.
Bilingual Education
Instructional programs for students who speak little or no English in which instruction is provided in the native language as well as English. The four types of programs include: language immersion; transitional; paired bilingual; and two-way bilingual.
Limited English Proficient (LEP)
A student who possesses limited mastery of the English language affecting instruction and learning.
English as a Second Language (ESL)
Instruction program for students who are not native speakers of English in which all instruction is provided in English; an English immersion instructional program in which all subjects are taught in English.
Multicultural Education
An approach to education that includes non-European perspectives in the curriculum; an educational approach designed to improve outcomes for all students of different cultural backgrounds and genders.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
A special education law that requires schools to educate students with disabilities in least restrictive environments to the greatest extent of their abilities using plans tailored to the individual needs of the students.
Individualized Education Program (IEP)
A customized plan for a student with a disability developed by an ARD committee that guides the instruction and services the student receives.
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
Provision in IDEA that requires students with disabilities to be educated with nondisabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate.
Admission Review and Dismissal (ARD)
A committee composed of the parent, administrator, assessment personnel, regular education teacher, special education teacher, and other pertinent representatives who meet on a regular basis to make decisions in regard to admission, services, and dismissal from special education.
Inclusion
An instructional arrangement whereby students with disabilities receive instruction and services in a general education setting with regular education peers.
Gifted and Talented (GT)
Instructional programs designed for students with exceptional intellectual ability, creativity, or talent; enrichment programs.
Learning Styles
A theory of individual learner preferences proposed by Dunn & Dunn addressing environmental factors.
Multiple Intelligences
An intelligence theory developed by Howard Gardner that changes the question from "How smart are you?" to "How are you smart?" The eight intelligences include: 1. interpersonal 2. intrapersonal 3. musical; linguistic 4. spatial 5. logical mathematical 6. bodily-kinesthetic 7. linguistic 8. naturalist
Direct Instruction
A teacher-directed approach to instruction; an instructional approach in which the teacher transmits information through goal-oriented, structured lessons. The seven parts to a direct instruction lesson include: 1. State learning objectives 2. Review prerequisites 3. Present new material 4. Conduct learning probes 5. Provide independent practice 6. Assessment and feedback 7. Review and provide distributed practice
Mental Set
Students' attitudes of readiness to begin a lesson that involves motivation and activation of prior knowledge on the topic of instruction; focus.
Wait Time
The length of time a teacher waits for a student to answer a question before helping the student answer or asking another student. Research indicates teachers who wait approximately 3 seconds after asking a question get better results that teachers who wait less (Tobin, 1986).
Calling Order
The order in which students are called on by the teacher to answer questions during the course of a classroom activity or lesson. Most teachers expand the definition of calling order to include the decision of whether to ask a question and then call on a student or call on student and then phrase the question.
Choral Response
Responses to questions made by an entire group of student in unison designed to provide the highest level of support with immediate feedback.
Time-on-Task
The portion of allocated time students are actively engaged in learning; engaged learning time. Allocated time refers to the opportunity for the entire class to engage in learning while engaged time differs for each student.
Objective
The focus of a lesson; what students are expected to learn.
Overt/Covert Behavior
Overt behavior is observable and covert behavior is cognitive and involves thinking. Teachers must generate overt behavior to monitor students' progress toward learning goals.
Pacing
The amount of content covered; rate at which content is taught with understanding.
Smoothness
The teacher's ability to maintain a continued focus on a meaningful sequence of instruction (Kounin, 1970); transitions between instructional sequences that maintain a focus on learning.
Momentum
The teacher's ability to avoid interruptions or slowing down instruction (Kounin, 1970); keeping an appropriate pace for instruction.
Reinforcement
The use of consequences to strengthen behavior. Positive-pleasurable consequence given to strengthen behavior Negative-release from an unpleasant situation given to strengthen behavior
Shaping
The teaching of a new skill or behavior by using reinforcement for incremental steps toward the desired goal.
Massed Practice
A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time.
Distributed Practice
A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time or intermittently.
Retention
The level to which students remembers or retains relevant learning information. Factors affecting retention include emotions, degree of original learning, practice, etc.
Top-Down Processing
A constructivist approach in which students begin with complex problems to solve, and then work out or discover (with teacher guidance) the basic skills and generalizations.
Motivation
An internal process that activates, guides, and maintains behavior over time. Intrinsic incentive-internal or natural desire or interest. Extrinsic incentive-an environmental reward or consequence affecting attitude.
Classical Conditioning
The process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to create a conditioned response. (example: raise your arm in the air and the group gets quiet or ring a bell and the students change groups)
Operant Conditioning
The use of positive or negative consequences to control the occurrence of behavior. (example: awarding points for reading)
Flexible Grouping
The formation of groups for a short period of time to support instruction; using a variety of grouping formats to support learning. Formats include large, small, partner, and one-on-one. Heterogeneous-group members differ in skills, needs, abilities, interests, learning styles, etc. Homogeneous-group member have similar skills, abilities, interests, learning styles, etc.
Classroom Climate
The way a classroom feels to the participants.
Conflict Contaminants
Conditions in which negative conflict grows. Some conflict contaminants include negativism, unrealistic expectations, poor communication, personal stressors, the savior syndrome, jumping to conclusions, lack of support and trust, and preference protection (Nath, p.155)
Conflict Resolution
Techniques employed to reduce or eliminate conflict between classroom participants. Techniques include using conciliatory gestures, avoidance, altering group structure, role clarification, communication, direct order, compromise, etc.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
An hierarchy of requirements for the well-being of a student including deficiency and growth needs. The hierarchy includes: 1. Survival 2. Safety 3. Belonging 4. Self-Esteem 5. Intellectual Achievement 6. Aesthetic Appreciation 7. Self-Actualization
Cambourne's Conditions for Learning
Characteristics of the environment that support learning. 1. Immersion 2. Demonstration 3. Expectation 4. Responsibility 5. Employment 6. Approximation 7. Engagement
Withitness
The degree to which the teacher is aware of and responsive to student behavior; a heightened sense of attentiveness to relevant student behavior.
Overlapping
A teacher's ability to predict and respond to behavior problems without interrupting a classroom lesson or activity.
Principle of Least Intervention
Correcting misbehaviors by using the simplest or least invasive intervention that will work. Possible steps include: 1. Prevention 2. Using nonverbal cues 3. Verbal Reminders 3. Consequences
Home Contingency
A home-based reinforcement system in which teachers work out with parents an arrangement to give or remove students special privileges at home if they meet well-specified standards of behavior.
Rules
Articulated expectations regarding student behavior; general expectations or standards of behavior. (example: respect others)
Procedures
Communicated expectations for specific student behavior. (example: keep hands and objects to yourself as we walk down the hall to the library)
Group Contingency
A program in which rewards or punishments are given to a class or group as a whole for adhering to or violating rules or procedures.
Instructional Strategy
A way of instruction that meets the needs, goals, and objectives of the learners; a plan, approach, or technique used to teach learning objectives. Teacher-centered-associated with direct models of instruction in which teachers provide information and students follow with practice sessions (example: deductive lessons) Student-centered-associated with constructivist models of instruction in which students are more active and interactive in the learning process (example: inductive and discovery learning)
Fair Use Guidelines
Guidelines limiting the rights of copyright holders and allowing portions of copyrighted materials to be used for educational purposes; guidelines for portion, time, amount, and distribution of copyrighted materials for educational purposes.
Filtering Software
Software installed on computers to prevent unwanted or inappropriate viewing of Web sites or information accessed via the Internet.
Computer-Assisted Instruction
A self-learning technique using computer software; mastery of learning objectives involving interaction of the students with technological programmed instructional materials.
Software Piracy
Any unauthorized use of computer software. Piracy is determined by the type of software and license agreement. Freeware-public domain and free to use and copy Shareware-free for a trial period and then requires purchase and registration Commercial-requires purchase and registration for any use
Assistive Technology
Technology for students with disabilities that assists achievement of goals as specified in the student's Individualized Education Program (IEP).
Assessment
A measurement appraisal process that is ongoing, developmentally appropriate, and dynamic; the process of gathering evidence of learning.
Evaluation
A formal measurement and judgment of student performance or behavior.
Formative Assessment
Assessment data that show a student's progress or lack of progress toward curricular objectives during the process of instruction.
Summative Assessment
Assessment data collected after instruction to evaluate a student's mastery of the curriculum objectives and a teacher's effectiveness at instructional delivery.
Reliability
The consistency of test results over time. A reliable measure is one that yields similar results time after time when administered to the same type or level of students under the same conditions.
Validity
The truthfulness of the assessment information; a determination of how closely a score report measures what it purports to measure. (Does it measure the content?)
Norm-referenced Test
A test takers performance reported in comparison to other test takers in the same age or grade sample. Results are reported in standard scores, percentile ranks, t scores, or z scores.
Criterion-referenced Test
A test takers performance reported as mastery of learning criteria or standards. Passing requires answering a certain percentage correctly. The TAKS test is a criterion-referenced test.
Measurement-based Assessment
Formal or standardized assessments that report learning of constructs in numerical terms; assessment of learning reported in numbers.
Performance-based Assessment
An alternative assessment method based on a student's performance of a skill based on a real-life situation.
Authentic Assessment
Demonstrating learning or a specific skill by constructing a product or solving a problem that could be generated from a real-life situation.
Portfolio
An authentic assessment tool used to assess student progress; a systematic collection of student work documenting evidence of learning.
Percentile Rank
Standardized scores that compare an individual with other test takers and report that he/she scored as well as or better than a certain percentage of the sample group.
Site-Based Decision Making
School-based, collaborative management; a form of management in which the participants in the school community make decisions regarding governance.
Professional Development Appraisal System (PDAS)
The current appraisal system used by most of the schools in Texas concentrating on eight domains:
Professionalism
How teachers see themselves as members of the learning community and teaching profession as well as the images they project; behaving in an ethical manner when interacting with colleagues, students, and parents.
Mentor
An experienced teacher or administrator who provides guidance and customized assistance to promote retention and success of new teachers.
Professional Development
Activities that enhance teachers' professional knowledge, competence, and expertise.
Educators' Code of Ethics
A code that sets standards and expectations for ethical practice by Texas teachers; a document outlining ethical conduct toward colleagues, school officials, parents, and members of the community,
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
A federal law enacted in 1974 that sets the requirements to protect the privacy of parents or legal caregivers of students.
Vertical Teaming
All levels of district employees meet to learn about and plan for the entire district; gaining knowledge from all levels of the district to make appropriate decisions. (example: coordination between grade levels)
Horizontal Teaming
Members from the same level of the district meet to learn about and plan for the individual school or grade level. (example: collaboration within a grade level)
Parallel Play
Play in which children engage in the same activity side by side but with very little interaction or mutual influence.
Bloom's Taxonomy
An ordering of learning objectives or questions based on levels of thinking from simple learning tasks to more complex. The levels of the cognitive domain include: 1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension 3. Application 4. Analysis 5. Sythesis 6. Evaluation
Primacy Effect
The tendency for learners to remember items at the beginning of a list more easily than other items; remembering information at the beginning of a text or lesson.
Recency Effect
The tendency for learners to remember items at the end of a list more easily than other items; remembering information at the end of a text or lesson.
Metacognition
Knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn; thinking about thinking.
Prior Knowledge
Knowledge about or experience with a topic that enables connections for learning; a basis for comprehension or understanding.
Risk-Free Environment
A classroom in which all learners feel their opinions and contributions are valued.
Self-Concept
One's perception of oneself; how one feels about self.
Self-Efficacy
The belief that one is capable of accomplishing something.
Transfer
The ability to apply learning in one area to learning in another area; the effects learning in one area has on new learning or applications. Positive transfer- the ability to appropriately apply learning in one area to another area; learning in one area enhances learning in new contexts. Negative transfer- inappropriately applying learning in one area to learning in another area: learning in one area makes it more difficult or confusing to learn in another area.
Formal Operational
The fourth stage of cognitive development (11 years to adulthood) in which abstract and symbolic thought is possible. Problems can be solved through the use of experimentation and critical thinking.
Postconventional Level of Morality
Stages 5 and 6 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which students define their own values in terms of ethical principles. Ethical behavior is a decision of conscience according to self-chosen principles and laws can be changed for the good of society.
Schemes
Mental patterns that guide behavior; cognitive structures that help children process and organize information to make sense of the environment.
Assimilation
Understanding new experiences in terms of existing schemes.
Accommodation
Modifying existing schemes to fit new situations in the environment.
Adaptation
The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment through assimilation or accommodation.
Equilibration
The process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences.
Disequilibrium
An imbalance between what a child understands and what the child encounters through new experiences.
Object Permanence
The fact that objects are physically stable and exist even when the objects are not in the child's physical presence.
Egocentric
Believing that everyone sees the world as you do
Conservation
The concept that certain properties of an object remain the same regardless of changes in other properties.
Centration
Paying attention to only one aspect of an object or situation; what is commonly called tunnel vision.
Reversibility
The ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse thinking to return to the starting point.
Class Inclusion
The ability to think simultaneously about a whole class of objects and about relationships among subordinate classes; a framework of thinking.
Inferred Reality
The ability to understand stimuli in the context of relevant information.
Seriation
Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, volume.
Transitivity
A skill learned during the concrete operational stage in which children can mentally arrange and compare objects. (IF a>b and b>c, then a>c)
Inversion
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. (+X is reversed by -X)
Reciprocity
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking.
Self-regulation
According to Vygotsky's theory, this is the ability to think and solve problems without the help of others.
Sign Systems
Symbols that cultures create to help people think, solve problems, and communicate.
Private Speech
Inner speech or children's self-talk that guides thinking and actions; an important consideration in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development.
Scaffolding
Support for learning and problem solving that include clues, reminders, examples, or encouragement.
Cooperative Learning
Strategies in which students work together to help one another learn by sharing perspectives and providing models of slightly advanced thinking.
Developmentally Appropriate Education
Instruction intentionally adapted to the current developmental level of students rather than planned according their chronological age or grade level.
Psychosocial Theory
A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development.
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
Social class defined in terms of income, occupation, education, possessions, and prestige in society. a measure of prestige within a social group.
Ethnicity
A culture, history, and sense of identity shared by a group of people; a way of life. A shared cultural heritage and traditions often based on race, religion, language, or national identity.
Bilingual Education
Instructional programs for students who speak little or no English in which instruction is provided in the native language as well as English.
Limited English Proficient (LEP)
A student who possesses limited mastery of the English language affection instruction and learning.
English as as Second Language
Instructional program for students who are not native speakers of English in which all instruction is provided in English;
Multicultural Education
An approach to education that includes non-European perspectives in the curriculum;
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
A special education law that requires schools to educate students with disabilities in least restrictive environments to the greatest extent of their abilities using plans tailored to the individual needs of the students.
Individualized Education Program (IEP)
A customized plan for a student with a disability developed by an ARD committee that guides the instruction and services the students receives.
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
Provision in IDEA that requires students with disabilities to be educated with non-disabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate.
Admission Review and Dismissal (ARD)
A committee composed of the parent, administrator, assessment personnel, regular education teacher, special education teacher, and other pertinent representatives who meet on a regular basis to make decisions in regard to admission, services, and dismissal from special education.
Inclusion
An instructional arrangement whereby students with disabilities receive instruction and services in a general education setting with regular education peers.
Gifted and Talented (GT)
Instructional programs designed for students with exceptional intellectual ability, creativity, or talent; enrichment programs.
Learning Styles
A theory of individual learner preferences proposed by Dunn & Dunn addressing environmental factors.
Multiple Intelligences
An intelligence theory developed by Howard Gardner that changes the question from "How smart are you?" to "How are you smart?"
Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner
1. interpersonal 2. intrapersonal 3. musical; linguistic 4. spatial 5. logical mathematical 6. bodily-kinesthetic 7. linguistic 8. naturalist
Direct Instruction
A teacher-directed approach to instruction; an instructional approach in which the teacher transmits information through goal-oriented, structured lessons.
Mental Set
Students' attitudes of readiness to begin a lesson that involves motivation and activation of prior knowledge on the topic of instruction; focus.
Wait Time
The length of time a teacher waits for a student to answer a question before helping the student answer or asking another student.
Calling Order
The order in which students are called on by the teacher to answer questions during the course of a classroom activity or lesson.
Choral Response
Responses to questions made by an entire group of students in unison designed to provide the highest level of support with immediate feedback.
Time-on-Task
The portion of allocated time students are actively engaged in learning; engaged learning time.
Objective
The focus of a lesson; what students are expected to learn.
Overt/Covert Behavior
Observable behavior is cognitive and involves thinking.
Pacing
The amount of content covered; rate at which content is taught with understanding.
Smoothness
The teacher's ability to maintain a continued focus on a meaningful sequence of instruction; transitions between instructional sequences that maintain a focus on learning.
Momentum
The teacher's ability to avoid interruptions or slowing down instruction; keeping an appropriate pace for instruction.
Reinforcement
The use of consequences to strengthen behavior.
Positive Reinforcement
Pleasurable consequence given to strengthen behavior
Negative Reinforcement
Release from an unpleasant situation given to strengthen behavior.
Shaping
The teaching of a new skill or behavior by using reinforcement for incremental steps toward the desired goal.
Massed Practice
A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time.
Distributed Practice
A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time or intermittently.
Retention
The level to which students remember or retain relevant learning information.
Top-Down Processing
A constructivist approach in which students begin with complex problems to solve, and then work out or discover (with teacher guidance) the basic skills and generalizations.
Motivation
An internal process that activates, guides, and maintains behavior over time.
Intrinsic Incentive
Internal or natural desire or interest.
Extrinsic Incentive
An environmental reward or consequence affecting attitude.
Classical Conditioning
The process of repeatedly association a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to create a conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning
The use of positive or negative consequences to control the occurrence of behavior. (example: awarding points for reading).
Flexible Grouping
The formation of groups for a short period of time to support instruction; using a variety of grouping formats to support learning. Formats include large, small, partner, and one-on-one.
Heterogeneous Grouping
Group members differ in skills, needs, abilities, interests, learning styles, etc.
Homogeneous Grouping
Group members have similar skills, abilities, interests, learning styles, etc.
Classroom Climate
The way a classroom feels to the participants.
Conflict Contaminants
Conditions in which negative conflict grows.
Conflict Resolution
Techniques employed to reduce or eliminate conflict between classroom participants.
Withitness
The degree to which the teacher is aware of and responsive to student behavior; a heightened sense of attentiveness to relevant student behavior.
Overlapping
A Teacher's ability to predict and respond to behavior problems without interrupting a classroom lesson or activity.
Principle of Least Intervention
Correcting misbehaviors by using the simplest or least invasive intervention that will work. Possible steps include: 1. Prevention. 2. Using nonverbal cues. 3. Verbal Reminders. 4. Consequences.
Home Contigency
A home-based reinforcement system in which teachers work out with parents an arrangement to give or remove students special privileges at home if they meet well-specified standards of behavior.
Rules
Articulated expectations regarding student behavior; general expectations or standards of behavior. (example: respect others)
Procedures
Communicated expectations for specific student behavior. (example: keep hands and objects to yourself as we walk down the hall to the library).
Group Contingency
A program in which rewards or punishments are given to a class or group as a whole for adhering to or violating rules or procedures.
Instructional Strategy
A way of instruction that meets the needs, goals, and objectives of the learners; a plan, approach, or technique used to teach learning objectives.
Teacher-Centered Instructional Strategy
Associated with direct models of instruction in which teachers provide information and students follow with practice sessions (example:deductive lessons)
Student-Centered Instructional Stategy
Associated with constructivist models of instruction in which students are more active and interactive in the learning process (example: inductive and discovery learning).
Fair Use Guidelines
Guidelines limiting the rights of copyright holders and allowing portions of copyrighted materials to be used for educational purposes;
Filtering Software
Software installed on computers to prevent unwanted or inappropriate viewing of Web sites or information accessed via the Internet.
Computer-Assisted Instruction
A self-learning technique using computer software; mastery of learning objective involving interaction of the students with technological programmed instructional materials.
Software Piracy
Any unauthorized use of computer software.
Assistive Technology
Technology for students with disabilities that assists achievement of goals as specified in the student's Individualized Education Program (IEP)
Assessment
A measurement appraisal process that is ongoing, developmentally appropriate, and dynamic; the process of gathering evidence of learning.
Evaluation
A formal measurement and judgement of student performance or behavior.
Formative Assessment
Assessment data that show a student's progress or lack of progress toward curricular objectives during the process of instruction.
Summative Assessment
Assessment data collected after instruction to evaluate a student's mastery of the curriculum objectives and teacher's effectiveness at instructional delivery.
Reliability
The consistency of test results over time. A reliable measure is one that yields similar results time after time when administered to the same type or level of students under the same conditions.
Validity
The truthfulness of the assessment information; a determination of how closely a score report measures what it purports to measure. (Does it measure the content?)
Norm-referenced Test
A test takers performance reported in comparison to other test takers in the same age or grade sample. Results are reported in standard scores, percentile ranks, t scores, or z scores.
Criterion-referenced Test
A test takers performance reported as mastery of learning criteria or standards. Passing requires answering a certain percentage correctly. The STAAR test is a criterion-referenced test.
Measurement-based Assessment
Formal or standardized assessments that report learning of constructs in numerical terms; assessment of learning reported in numbers.
Performance-based Assessment
An alternative assessment method based on a student's performance of a skill based on a real-life situation.
Authentic Assessment
Demonstrating learning or a specific skill by constructing a product or solving a problem that could be generated from a real-life situation.
Portfolio
An authentic assessment tool used to assess student progress; a systematic collection of student work documenting evidence of learning.
Percentile Rank
Standardized scores that compare an indiviudual with other test takers and report that he/she scored as well as or better than a certain percentage of the sample group.
Site-Based Decision Making
School-based, collaborative management; a form of management in which the participants in the school community make decisions regarding governance.
Professional Developmental Appraisal System (PDAS)
The current appraisal system used by most of the schools in Texas concentrating on eight domains
Professionalism
Behaving in an ethical manner when interacting with colleagues, students, and parents.
Mentor
An experienced teacher or administrator who provides guidance and customized assistance to promote retention and success of new teachers.
Professional Development
Activities that enhance teachers' professional knowledge, competence, and expertise.
Educators' Code of Ethics
A code that sets standards and expectations for ethical practice by Texas teachers; a document outlining ethical conduct toward colleagues, school officials, parents, and members of the community.
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
A federal law enacted in 1974 that sets the requirements to protect the privacy of parents or legal caregivers of students.
Vertical Teaming
All levels of district employees meet to learn about and plan for the entire district; gaining knowledge from all levels of the district to make appropriate decisions. (example: coordination between grade levels)
Horizontal Teaming
Members from the same level of the district meet to learn about and plan for the individual school or grade level. (example: collaboration with a grade level)
Parallel Play
Play in which children engage in the same activity side by side but with very little interaction or mutual influence.
Primacy Effect
The tendency for learners to remember items at the beginning of a list more easily than other items;
Recency Effect
The tendency for learners to remember items at the end of a list more easily than other items;
Metacognition
Knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn; thinking about thinking.
Prior Knowledge
Knowledge about or experience with a topic that enables connection for learning; a basis for comprehension or understanding.
Risk-Free Environment
A classroom in which all learners feel their opinions and contributions are valued.
Self-Concept
One's perception of oneself; how one feels about self.
Self-Efficacy
The belief that one is capable of accomplishing something.
Transfer
The ability to apply learning in one area to learning in another area; the effects learning in one area has on a new learning or applications.
Negative transfer
Inappropriately applying learning in one area to learning in another area: learning in one area makes it more difficult or confusing to learn in another area.
Positive transfer
The ability to appropriately apply learning in one area to another area: learning in one area enhances learning in new contexts.
Freeware
Public domain and free to use and copy.
Shareware
Free for a trial period and then requires purchase and registration.
Commercial
Requires purchase and registration for any use.
Behaviorism
Learning is defined as the new behavior we acquire through experiences.
Constructivism
Learning is defined by how we adjust our personal rules to include new experiences, which may cause us to reassess our mental rules.
Vygotsky
Thought culture is the main influencing factor on human development; created social cognition learning model
Piaget
Created a model of child development and learning that shows how their cognitive structure develops based on the idea that children build cognitive structures or concepts in order to respond to experiences in their environment.
Pre-operational Stage of Development
Concrete situations are best. Ages 2-7
Concrete Operational Stage of Development
Can start to conceptualize and may be able to solve abstract problems, such as using numbers in math instead of physical objects. Ages 7-11.
Formal Operational Stage of Development
Cognitive structures are like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning. Ages 11-15.
Skinner's Operant Conditioning Interpretations of Learning
Students will like or dislike a subject based on past experiences.
Persuasive Models of Social Learning Theory
People will pay attention to positive experiences of others and strive to repeat them for themselves.
Cognitive View of Motivation
Behavior is influenced by the way that people think about themselves and their environment.
Atkinson's Achievement Behavior
Differences in achievement behavior are due to the differences in the need for achievement that each person feels.
Preconceptions
Opinions or conceptions formed before adequate knowledge or experience has been accessed.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Basic needs must be met before higher needs can be addressed.
1. Physiological
2. Safety and stability
3. Positive relationships with sense of love and belonging
4. Confidence
5. Self-Actualization
Glasser's Control Theory
Motivations, behaviors, and actions are attempts to satisfy needs such as love, survival, power, and freedom.
Erikson's Stages of Social-Emotional Development
Theory in which identifies 8 stages through which a healthily developing human should pass from infancy to late adulthood.
Learning Basic Trust vs. Mistrust
Birth to 2 years old
Learning Autonomy vs. Shame
2-4 years; new sense of control; tantrums; mine stage
Learning Initiative vs. Guilt
4-5 years; develops imagination, cooperation with others, how to lead and follow
Industry vs. Inferiority
5-12 years; learns formal skills of life; self-discipline
Learning Identity vs. Identity Diffusion
13-19 years; child finds identity after rebellion and self doubt, role experimentation.
Learning Intimacy vs. Isolation
20-24 years; pursues intimacy in the form of long lasting relationships
Learning Generativity vs. Self-Absorption
25-64 years; working cooperatively and productively instead of focusing on independent goals.
Integrity vs. Despair
65-death; adult reaches adjustment integrity; can experiment after working hard; happy and proud
Kolb's Learning Process
1. Concrete experience 2. Observation and reflection 3. Abstract conceptualization 4. Active experimentation
Reg Revan's Theory of Action Learning
Uses small cooperative learning groups who meet regularly to discuss real-life issues to learn from and with each other through shared experiences.
Atkinson's Achievement Behavior
Differences are due to the need for achievement that each person feels
Senory Stimulation Theory
When senses are stimulated, effective learning can take place.
Gastalt Approach
Believes that through active problem-solving, insights will develop which are vital learning because each student approaches each task subjectively and will therefore develop insights that make sense to them individually.
Holistic Learning Theory
Each student has different personality comprised of many different elements such as imaginations, feelings and intelligence
The Humanistic Approach by Carl Rogers
Places importance of learning upon person who is facilitating the learning
Gardner's Theory or Multiple Intelligences
Differentiates intelligence into specific modalities rather than seeing intelligence as dominated by a single general ability.
8 Intelligences of Gardner's Theory
1. Linguistic 2. Musical 3. Logical 4. Spacial 5. Bodily-Kinesthetic 6. Naturalist 7. Interpersonal 8. Intrapersonal 9. Existential
Interpersonal
Of or relating to relationships or communication between people
Intrapersonal
Occurring within the individual mind or self
Bloom's Taxonomy
Build thinking skills from lower to higher order
Knowledge - Bloom's Taxonomy
Relies heavily on memorization
Comprehension - Bloom's Taxonomy
The ability to grasp the meaning of the material learned that may be shown by interpretation and predication
Application - Bloom's Taxonomy
The ability to use learned informations in new situations
Analysis - Bloom's Taxonomy
Represents the ability to break down materials into its parts so that it's organization can be looked at.
Synthesis - Bloom's Taxonomy
Put parts together to form a new whole
Evaluation - Bloom's Taxonomy
Tests the ability to judge the value of a material for a certain purpose
Cognitive Learning
Focuses on ways to enhance student's intrinsic nature to make sense of the world around them.
Discovery Learning
Learning occurs through one's own efforts through structured activities designed by the teacher that require students to discover important relationships between ideas or concepts by manipulation, investigation, and exploration.
Ausubel's Idea of Reception Learning
Organizes teacher presentation from general to specific and uses a variety of organizational tools
Divergent Thinking
Generating many ideas about a topic in a short period of time; many possible right answers;
Convergent Thinking
The analysis or integration of already taught or previous knowledge; leads to one expected end result or answer.
Pre-production - Second Language Acquisition
Student has limited number of words but will not speak voluntarily
Early-Production - Second Language Acquisition
Students can speak 1 or 2 word phrases or memorized sentences
Mainstreaming
Allowing students with disabilities to join general education students in non-consequential classes like Art and P.E.
Inclusion
A commitment to educate a SPED child in a regular school and classroom as much as possible
Submersion
ELLs are put into all-English classes and must learn English or fail
Immersion
Students are taught by a teacher who understands their language but only speaks English to them
Transitional
ELLs native tongue is used only to transition and explain English to them until they achieve fluency
Lee and Marlene Canter
Viewed classroom management as establishing and enforcing classroom rules as a way of controlling student behavior, mainly by discipline
Carl Rogers
Believed classroom management was achieved through socko emotional climate. Thought having positive interpersonal relationships between students and teachers would foster a positive classroom
Richard and Patricia Smuck
Put emphasis on the teacher establishing and maintaining an effectively controlled classroom with cooperation being the key skills needed in order to have group work effectively together.
B.F. Skinner
Believed that you should reward good behavior, remove rewards or punish inappropriate behavior
Madeline Hunter's Direct Instruction Model
1. Anticipatory Set 2. Objectives 3. Teaching 4. Guided Practice 5. Check for Understanding 6. Independent Practice 7. Closure
Discovery Learning
Students work individually to learn basic principles taught in a lesson.
Emergent Curriculum
Developed and built around the interests of the students
Antibias Curriculum
Activist approach of eliminating sociological maladies in education such as sexism, homophobia, ageism, racism
Affective domain
Emotional value system of students
Cognitive domain
Intellectual learning and problem solving
Psychomotor Doman
Movement characteristics and capabilities
Cultural Blindeness
Differences in culture or language are ignored as though they do not exist
Cultural Imposition
The belief that everyone should conform to the majority
Ethnocentrism
The inability to accept another culture's world view
Quantitative Measurement
A standardized test or any multiple choice test
Syncretism
The conscious adopting of cultural elements of a dominant group
HUMAN DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES AND APPLIES THIS KNOWLEDGE TO PLAN INSTRUCTION AND ONGOING ASSESSMENT THAT MOTIVATE STUDENTS AND ARE RESPONSIVE TO THEIR DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS
AND NEEDS.
competency 001
STUDENT DIVERSITY AND KNOWS HOW TO PLAN LEARNING EXPERIENCES AND DESIGN ASSESSMENTS THAT ARE RESPONSIVE TO DIFFERENCES AMONG STUDENTS AND THAT PROMOTE ALL STUDENTS' LEARNING.
competency 002
PROCEDURES FOR DESIGNING EFFECTIVE AND COHERENT INSTRUCTION AND ASSESSMENT BASED ON APPROPRIATE LEARNING GOALS AND OBJECTIVES.
competency 003
LEARNING PROCESSES AND FACTORS THAT IMPACT STUDENT LEARNING AND DEMONSTRATES THIS KNOWLEDGE BY PLANNING EFFECTIVE, ENGAGING INSTRUCTION AND APPROPRIATE ASSESSMENTS.
competency 004
KNOWS HOW TO ESTABLISH A CLASSROOM CLIMATE THAT FOSTERS LEARNING, EQUITY AND EXCELLENCE AND USES THIS KNOWLEDGE TO CREATE A PHYSICAL AND EMOTIONAL ENVIRONMENT THAT IS SAFE AND PRODUCTIVE.
competency 005
STRATEGIES FOR CREATING AN ORGANIZED AND PRODUCTIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT AND FOR MANAGING STUDENT BEHAVIOR.
competency 006
UNDERSTANDS AND APPLIES PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES FOR COMMUNICATING EFFECTIVELY IN VARIED TEACHING AND LEARNING CONTEXTS.
competency 007
PROVIDES APPROPRIATE INSTRUCTION THAT ACTIVELY ENGAGES STUDENTS IN THE LEARNING PROCESS.
competency 008
INCORPORATES THE EFFECTIVE USE OF TECHNOLOGY TO PLAN, ORGANIZE, DELIVER AND EVALUATE INSTRUCTION FOR ALL STUDENTS.
competency 009
MONITORS STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND ACHIEVEMENT; PROVIDES STUDENTS WITH TIMELY, HIGH-QUALITY FEEDBACK; AND RESPONDS FLEXIBLY TO PROMOTE LEARNING FOR ALL STUDENTS.
competency 010
THE IMPORTANCE OF FAMILY INVOLVEMENT IN CHILDREN'S EDUCATION AND KNOWS HOW TO INTERACT AND COMMUNICATE EFFECTIVELY WITH FAMILIES.
competency 011
ENHANCES PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS BY EFFECTIVELY INTERACTING WITH OTHER MEMBERS OF THE EDUCATIONAL COMMUNITY AND PARTICIPATING IN VARIOUS TYPES OF PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES.
competency 012
UNDERSTANDS AND ADHERES TO LEGAL AND ETHICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR EDUCATORS AND IS KNOWLEDGEABLE OF THE STRUCTURE OF EDUCATION IN TEXAS
competency 013
additional funding and instructional
IDEA(individuals with Disabilities Education Act)
PL 94-142 (The Education of All Handicapped Children Act) was enacted into federal law in 1975
...
LEARNING disabilities & speech disabilities (general classrooms)
Multipledisabilities (outside)
IEP
Individualized Edu. Program
Tinker vs. the Des Moines
students have had due process. Rights: - to know what they allegedly did wrong, evidence of wrong doing, -face their accusers, -
FERA
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act 1974.
Title IX
mandates gender equity in all school contexts
State Board of Education (SBOE)
-15 members elected by their respective districts for six year terms;
-governor appoints a chair of the board from the membership
-s similar to that of a local school board although SBOE functions at the state level.
Lawrence Kohlberg
1. power stage: power btw c. & person in authority
2. Self Service Behavior: rewards/ punishment stage
3. Interpersonal Discipline: they behave b/c you ask them
4. Self Discipline: I behave b/c it's the right thing to do
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
1. Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) 2. Preoperational (2 to 7 years) 3. Concrete operational (7 to 11 years) 4. Formal operational (11 years to adulthood)
Schemes
Mental patterns that guide behavior; cognitive structures that help children process and organize information to make sense of the environment
Assimilation
Understanding new experiences in terms of existing schemes
Accommodation
Modifying existing schemes to fit new situations in the environment. When old ways of dealing with the environment don't work, a child modifies an existing scheme stimulated by new information or a new experience
Adaptation
The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment through assimilation or accommodation. According to Piaget, this is how learning occurs.
Equilibration
The process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences. According to Piaget, learning depends on this process so it is important for teachers to confront students with new experiences or data to advance their cognitive development.
Disequilibrium
An imbalance between what a child understands and what the child encounters through new experiences.
Sensorimotor Stage
The earliest stage (birth to 2 years) of cognitive development during which infants learn about the environment by using their senses and motor skills. Children develop "object permanence" and progress from reflexive behavior to goal-directed behavior.
Preoperational Stage
The second stage (2 to 7 years) of cognitive development in which children learn to represent things in their mind. During this stage students develop the ability to use symbols to represent objects in the world. Thinking remains egocentric and centered.
Centration
Paying attention to only one aspect of an object or situation; what is commonly called tunnel vision.
Reversibility
The ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse thinking to return to the starting point.
Class Inclusion
The ability to think simultaneously about a whole class of objects and about relationships among subordinate classes; a framework for thinking.
Concrete Operational Stage
The third stage (7 to 11 years) of cognitive development in which children develop the capacity for logical reasoning and understanding of conservation but can use the skills only in dealing with familiar situations. New abilities include operations that are reversible. Thinking is decentered, allowing them to understand that others may have different perceptions, and problem solving is less restricted by egocentrism. Abstract thinking is not possible.
Inferred Reality
The ability to understand stimuli in the context of relevant information. Preschoolers see what they see with little ability to infer the meaning behind what they see. Students in the concrete operational stage respond to inferred reality and see things in the context of other meanings.
Seriation
Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, volume, etc. Seriation involves arranging things in a logical progression such as from smallest to largest or shortest or tallest.
Transivity
A skill learned during the concrete operational stage in which children can mentally arrange and compare objects. Transitivity is the ability to infer a relationship between two objects on the basis of knowledge of their respective relationships with a third object. (If a>b and b>c, then a>c)
Inversion
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. (+X is reversed by -X)
Reciprocity
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. (MM)
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development
He proposed children understand the world based on social interactions within their culture and the sign systems that represent ideas. These systems include symbols used to think, solve problems, and communicate. Vygotsky's theory highlights the socio-cultural nature of learning.
Self-regulation
According to Vygotsky's theory, self-regulation is the ability to think and solve problems without the help of others. Learning is a social process and learning occurs when self-regulation is achieved.
Sign Systems
Symbols that cultures create to help people think, solve problems, and communicate.
Private Speech
Inner speech or children's self-talk that guides thinking and actions; an important consideration in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development.
Zone of Proximal Development
Level of development immediately above a student's present level. The tasks within the zone of proximal development require assistance from the teacher or a more knowledgeable other. Students cannot perform tasks alone within the zone of proximal development. Activities designed within this zone are guided activities.
Scaffolding
Support for learning and problem solving that include clues, reminders, examples, or encouragement. Scaffolding allows a student to make a learning connection and become independent as a learner.
Cooperative Learning
Strategies in which students work together to help one another learn by sharing perspectives and providing models of slightly advanced thinking.
Developmentally Appropriate Education
Instruction intentionally adapted to the current developmental level of students rather than planned according their chronological age or grade level.
Psychosocial Theory
A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development.
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Trained by Freud as a psychoanalyst, Erikson proposed people pass through eight psychosocial stages of development. A psychosocial crisis is resolved at each stage.
Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
Part of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development addresses children's moral reasoning. Piaget proposed that as children's thinking becomes more advanced their understanding of moral problems deepens. 1. Heteronomous Morality (based on rules and consequences) 2. Autonomous Morality (based on mutual respect and recognition)
Heteronomous Morality
According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the younger stage when children think rules are unchangeable and that breaking rules leads to punishment.
Autonomous Morality
According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the older stage when children understand that rules are created and that punishments are not automatic.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning
Lawrence Kohlberg proposed students pass through three levels and six stages of moral reasoning: I. Preconventional Level Stage 1 Punishment and Obedience Orientation Stage 2 Instrumental Realist Orientation II. Conventional Level Stage 3 "Good boy-Good girl" Orientation Stage 4 "Law and Order" Orientation III. Postconventional Level Stage 5 Social Contract Orientation Stage 6 Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
Preconventional Level of Morality
Stages 1 and 2 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which children make moral decisions in their own interests to avoid punishments. Safety is the main consideration.
Conventional Level of Morality
Stages 3 and 4 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning during which children make moral decisions in consideration of others. Fairness is the main consideration.
Bilingual Education
language immersion; transitional; paired bilingual; and two-way bilingual.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
A special education law that requires schools to educate students with disabilities in least restrictive environments to the greatest extent of their abilities using plans tailored to the individual needs of the students.
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
Provision in IDEA that requires students with disabilities to be educated with nondisabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate.
Learning Styles
A theory of individual learner preferences proposed by Dunn & Dunn addressing environmental factors.
Multiple Intelligences
The eight intelligences include: 1. interpersonal 2. intrapersonal 3. musical; linguistic 4. spatial 5. logical mathematical 6. bodily-kinesthetic 7. linguistic 8. naturalist
Direct Instruction
A teacher-directed approach to instruction; an instructional approach in which the teacher transmits information through goal-oriented, structured lessons. The seven parts to a direct instruction lesson include: 1. State learning objectives 2. Review prerequisites 3. Present new material 4. Conduct learning probes 5. Provide independent practice 6. Assessment and feedback 7. Review and provide distributed practice
Mental Set
Students' attitudes of readiness to begin a lesson that involves motivation and activation of prior knowledge on the topic of instruction; focus.
Calling Order
The order in which students are called on by the teacher to answer questions during the course of a classroom activity or lesson. Most teachers expand the definition of calling order to include the decision of whether to ask a question and then call on a student or call on student and then phrase the question.
Choral Response
Responses to questions made by an entire group of student in unison designed to provide the highest level of support with immediate feedback.
Time-on-Task
The portion of allocated time students are actively engaged in learning; engaged learning time. Allocated time refers to the opportunity for the entire class to engage in learning while engaged time differs for each student.
Overt/Covert Behavior
Overt behavior is observable and covert behavior is cognitive and involves thinking. Teachers must generate overt behavior to monitor students' progress toward learning goals.
Pacing
Rate at which content is taught with understanding.
Smoothness
The teacher's ability to maintain a continued focus on a meaningful sequence of instruction (Kounin, 1970); transitions between instructional sequences that maintain a focus on learning.
Momentum
The teacher's ability to avoid interruptions or slowing down instruction (Kounin, 1970); keeping an appropriate pace for instruction.
Reinforcement
The use of consequences to strengthen behavior. Positive-pleasurable consequence given to strengthen behavior Negative-release from an unpleasant situation given to strengthen behavior
Shaping
The teaching of a new skill or behavior by using reinforcement for incremental steps toward the desired goal.
Massed Practice
A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time.
Distributed Practice
A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time or intermittently.
Retention
The level to which students remembers or retains relevant learning information. Factors affecting retention include emotions, degree of original learning, practice, etc.
Top-Down Processing
A constructivist approach in which students begin with complex problems to solve, and then work out or discover (with teacher guidance) the basic skills and generalizations.
Classical Conditioning
The process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to create a conditioned response. (example: raise your arm in the air and the group gets quiet or ring a bell and the students change groups)
Operant Conditioning
The use of positive or negative consequences to control the occurrence of behavior. (example: awarding points for reading)
Conflict Contaminants
Conditions in which negative conflict grows. Some conflict contaminants include negativism, unrealistic expectations, poor communication, personal stressors, the savior syndrome, jumping to conclusions, lack of support and trust, and preference protection (Nath, p.155)
Conflict Resolution
Techniques employed to reduce or eliminate conflict between classroom participants. Techniques include using conciliatory gestures, avoidance, altering group structure, role clarification, communication, direct order, compromise, etc.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
An hierarchy of requirements for the well-being of a student including deficiency and growth needs. The hierarchy includes: 1. Survival 2. Safety 3. Belonging 4. Self-Esteem 5. Intellectual Achievement 6. Aesthetic Appreciation 7. Self-Actualization
Cambourne's Conditions for Learning
Characteristics of the environment that support learning. 1. Immersion 2. Demonstration 3. Expectation 4. Responsibility 5. Employment 6. Approximation 7. Engagement
Withitness
The degree to which the teacher is aware of and responsive to student behavior; a heightened sense of attentiveness to relevant student behavior.
Overlapping
A teacher's ability to predict and respond to behavior problems without interrupting a classroom lesson or activity.
Principle of Least Intervention
Correcting misbehaviors by using the simplest or least invasive intervention that will work. Possible steps include: 1. Prevention 2. Using nonverbal cues 3. Verbal Reminders 3. Consequences
Home Contingency
A home-based reinforcement system in which teachers work out with parents an arrangement to give or remove students special privileges at home if they meet well-specified standards of behavior.
Rules
Articulated expectations regarding student behavior; general expectations or standards of behavior. (example: respect others)
Procedures
Communicated expectations for specific student behavior. (example: keep hands and objects to yourself as we walk down the hall to the library)
Group Contingency
A program in which rewards or punishments are given to a class or group as a whole for adhering to or violating rules or procedures.
Instructional Strategy
A way of instruction that meets the needs, goals, and objectives of the learners; a plan, approach, or technique used to teach learning objectives. Teacher-centered-associated with direct models of instruction in which teachers provide information and students follow with practice sessions (example: deductive lessons) Student-centered-associated with constructivist models of instruction in which students are more active and interactive in the learning process (example: inductive and discovery learning)
Computer-Assisted Instruction
A self-learning technique using computer software; mastery of learning objectives involving interaction of the students with technological programmed instructional materials.
Assessment
A measurement appraisal process that is ongoing, developmentally appropriate, and dynamic; the process of gathering evidence of learning.
Evaluation
A formal measurement and judgment of student performance or behavior.
Formative Assessment
Assessment data that show a student's progress or lack of progress toward curricular objectives during the process of instruction.
Summative Assessment
Assessment data collected after instruction to evaluate a student's mastery of the curriculum objectives and a teacher's effectiveness at instructional delivery.
Validity
The truthfulness of the assessment information; a determination of how closely a score report measures what it purports to measure. (Does it measure the content?)
Norm-referenced Test
A test takers performance reported in comparison to other test takers in the same age or grade sample. Results are reported in standard scores, percentile ranks, t scores, or z scores.
Criterion-referenced Test
A test takers performance reported as mastery of learning criteria or standards. Passing requires answering a certain percentage correctly. The TAKS test is a criterion-referenced test.
Measurement-based Assessment
Formal or standardized assessments that report learning of constructs in numerical terms; assessment of learning reported in numbers.
Performance-based Assessment
An alternative assessment method based on a student's performance of a skill based on a real-life situation.
Authentic Assessment
Demonstrating learning or a specific skill by constructing a product or solving a problem that could be generated from a real-life situation.
Percentile Rank
Standardized scores that compare an individual with other test takers and report that he/she scored as well as or better than a certain percentage of the sample group.
Site-Based Decision Making
School-based, collaborative management; a form of management in which the participants in the school community make decisions regarding governance.
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
A federal law enacted in 1974 that sets the requirements to protect the privacy of parents or legal caregivers of students.
Vertical Teaming
All levels of district employees meet to learn about and plan for the entire district; gaining knowledge from all levels of the district to make appropriate decisions. (example: coordination between grade levels)
Horizontal Teaming
Members from the same level of the district meet to learn about and plan for the individual school or grade level. (example: collaboration within a grade level)
Parallel Play
Play in which children engage in the same activity side by side but with very little interaction or mutual influence.
Bloom's Taxonomy
An ordering of learning objectives or questions based on levels of thinking from simple learning tasks to more complex. The levels of the cognitive domain include: 1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension 3. Application 4. Analysis 5. Sythesis 6. Evaluation
Primacy Effect
The tendency for learners to remember items at the beginning of a list more easily than other items; remembering information at the beginning of a text or lesson.
Recency Effect
The tendency for learners to remember items at the end of a list more easily than other items; remembering information at the end of a text or lesson.
Risk-Free Environment
A classroom in which all learners feel their opinions and contributions are valued.
Self-Efficacy
The belief that one is capable of accomplishing something.
Transfer
The ability to apply learning in one area to learning in another area; the effects learning in one area has on new learning or applications. Positive transfer- the ability to appropriately apply learning in one area to another area; learning in one area enhances learning in new contexts. Negative transfer- inappropriately applying learning in one area to learning in another area: learning in one area makes it more difficult or confusing to learn in another area.
Formal Operational
The fourth stage of cognitive development (11 years to adulthood) in which abstract and symbolic thought is possible. Problems can be solved through the use of experimentation and critical thinking.
Postconventional Level of Morality
Stages 5 and 6 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which students define their own values in terms of ethical principles. Ethical behavior is a decision of conscience according to self-chosen principles and laws can be changed for the good of society.
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, developed a theory of how cognition develops and changes over time.
Four Stages of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget proposed that a child's intellect progresses through four stages:
1) Sensorimotor (0-2)
2) Preoperational (2-7)
3) Concrete operational (7-11)
4) Formal operational (11-adulthood)
How does Piaget think kids learn?
Children learn through active interaction and manipulation of the environment.
What do Piaget's stages mean?
The stage the child is in determines how they see the world. Piaget believed that all students pass through the stages in order and cannot skip any stage.
Schemes
Mental patterns that guide behavior; cognitive structures that help children process and organize information to make sense of the environment.
Assimilation
Understanding new experiences in terms of existing schemes.
Accommodation
Modifying existing schemes to fit new situations in the environment.
Adaptation
The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment through assimilation or accommodation. According to Piaget, this is how learning occurs.
Equilibration
The process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences. According to Piaget, learning depends on this process so it is important for teachers to confront students with new experiences or data to advance their cognitive development.
Disequilibrium
An imbalance between what a child understands and what the child encounters through new experiences.
Sensorimotor Stage
The earliest stage (0-2) of cognitive development during which infants learn about the environment by using their senses and motor skills. Children develop object permanence and progress from reflexive behavior to goal-directed behavior.
Object Permanence
The fact that objects are physically stable and exist even when the objects are not in the child's physical presence. This enables the child to start using symbols to represent things in their minds so they can think about them.
Preoperational Stage
The second stage (2-7) of cognitive development in which children learn to represent things in their mind. During this stage students develop the ability to use symbols to represent objects in the world. Thinking remains egocentric and centered.
Egocentric
Believing that everyone sees the world as you do.
Conservation
The concept that certain properties of an object remain the same regardless of changes in other properties.
Centration
Paying attention to only one aspect of an object or situation; what is commonly called tunnel vision.
Reversibility
The ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse thinking to return to the starting point.
Class Inclusion
The ability to think simultaneously about a whole class of objects and about relationships among subordinate classes; a framework for thinking.
Concrete Operational Stage
The third stage (7-11) of cognitive development in which children develop the capacity for logical reasoning and understanding of conservation but can use skills only in dealing with familiar situations. New abilities include operations that are reversible. Thinking is decentered, allowing them to understand that others may have different perceptions, and problem solving is less restricted by egocentrism. Abstract thinking is not possible.
Formal Operational
The fourth stage of cognitive development (11-adulthood) in which abstract and symbolic thought is possible. Problems can be solved through the use of experimentation and critical thinking.
Inferred Reality
The ability to understand stimuli in the context of relevant information. Preschoolers see what they see with little ability to infer the meaning behind what they see. Students in the concrete operational stage respond to inferred reality and see things in the context of other meanings.
Seriation
Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect. Seriation involves arranging things in a logical progression.
Transivity
A skill learned during the concrete operational stage in which children can mentally arrange and compare objects.
Inversion
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking.
Reciprocity
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking.
Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, developed a theory of cognitive development based on two key ideas.
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development
He proposed children understand the world based on social interactions within their culture and the sign systems that represent ideas.
Self-regulation
According to Vygotsky's theory, self-regulation is the ability to think and solve problems without the help of others.
Sign Systems
Symbols that cultures create to help people think, solve problems, and communicate.
Private Speech
Inner speech or children's self-talk that guides thinking and actions.
Zone of Proximal Development
Level of development immediately above a student's present level. The tasks within the zone of proximal development require assistance from the teacher or a more knowledgeable other.
Scaffolding
Support for learning and problem solving that include clues, reminders, examples, or encouragement.
Cooperative Learning
Strategies in which students work together to help one another learn by sharing perspectives and providing models of slightly advanced thinking.
Developmentally Appropriate Education
Instruction intentionally adapted to the current developmental level of students rather than planned according their chronological age or grade level.
Psychosocial Theory
A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development.
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Trained by Freud as a psychoanalyst, Erikson proposed people pass through eight psychosocial stages of development. A psychosocial crisis is resolved at each stage.
Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
Piaget proposed that as children's thinking becomes more advanced their understanding of moral problems deepens.
Heteronomous Morality
According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the younger stage when children think rules are unchangeable and that breaking rules leads to punishment.
Autonomous Morality
According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the older stage when children understand that rules are created and that punishments are not automatic.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning
Lawrence Kohlberg proposed students pass through three levels and six stages of moral reasoning.
Preconventional Level of Morality
Stages 1 and 2 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which children make moral decisions in their own interests to avoid punishments. Safety is the main consideration.
Conventional Level of Morality
Stages 3 and 4 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning during which children make moral decisions in consideration of others. Fairness is the main consideration.
Postconventional Level of Morality
Stages 5 and 6 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which students define their own values in terms of ethical principles. Ethical behavior is a decision of conscience according to self-chosen principles and laws can be changed for the good of society.
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
Social class defined in terms of income, occupation, education, possessions, and prestige in society. A measure of prestige within a social group.
Ethnicity
A shared cultural heritage and traditions often based on race, religion, language, or national identity.
Bilingual Education
Instructional programs for students who speak little or no English in which instruction is provided in the native language as well as English.
Four types of Bilingual Education
language immersion; transitional; paired bilingual; and two-way bilingual
Limited English Proficient (LEP)
A student who possesses limited mastery of the English language affecting instruction and learning.
English as a Second Language (ESL)
Instruction program for students who are not native speakers of English in which all instruction is provided in English.
Multicultural Education
An educational approach designed to improve outcomes for all students of different cultural backgrounds and genders.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
A special education law that requires schools to educate students with disabilities in least restrictive environments to the greatest extent of their abilities using plans tailored to the individual needs of the students.
Individualized Education Program (IEP)
A customized plan for a student with a disability developed by an ARD committee that guides the instruction and services the student receives.
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
Provision in IDEA that requires students with disabilities to be educated with non-disabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate.
Admission Review and Dismissal (ARD)
A committee composed of the parent, administrator, assessment personnel, regular education teacher, special education teacher, and other pertinent representatives who meet on a regular basis to make decisions in regard to admission, services, and dismissal from special education.
Inclusion
An instructional arrangement whereby students with disabilities receive instruction and services in a general education setting with regular education peers.
Gifted and Talented (GT)
Instructional programs designed for students with exceptional intellectual ability, creativity, or talent.
Learning Styles
A theory of individual learner preferences proposed by Dunn & Dunn addressing environmental factors.
Multiple Intelligences
An intelligence theory developed by Howard Gardner that changes the question from "How smart are you?" to "How are you smart?"
The Eight Intelligences
1) interpersonal
2) intrapersonal
3) musical-linguistic
4) spatial
5) logical mathematical
6) bodily-kinesthetic
7) linguistic
8) naturalist
Direct Instruction
An instructional approach in which the teacher transmits information through goal-oriented, structured lessons.
The seven parts to a direct instruction lesson
1) State learning objectives
2) Review prerequisites
3) Present new material
4) Conduct learning probes
5) Provide independent practice
6) Assessment and feedback
7) Review and provide distributed practice
Mental Set
Students' attitudes of readiness to begin a lesson that involves motivation and activation of prior knowledge on the topic of instruction; focus.
Wait Time
The length of time a teacher waits for a student to answer a question before helping the student answer or asking another student. Research indicates teachers who wait approximately 3 seconds after asking a question get better results that teachers who wait less (Tobin, 1986).
Calling Order
The order in which students are called on by the teacher to answer questions during the course of a classroom activity or lesson. Most teachers expand the definition of calling order to include the decision of whether to ask a question and then call on a student or call on student and then phrase the question.
Choral Response
Responses to questions made by an entire group of student in unison designed to provide the highest level of support with immediate feedback.
Time-on-Task
The portion of allocated time students are actively engaged in learning; engaged learning time. Allocated time refers to the opportunity for the entire class to engage in learning while engaged time differs for each student.
Objective
The focus of a lesson; what students are expected to learn.
Overt/Covert Behavior
Overt behavior is observable and covert behavior is cognitive and involves thinking.
Pacing
The amount of content covered; rate at which content is taught with understanding.
Smoothness
The teacher's ability to maintain a continued focus on a meaningful sequence of instruction (Kounin, 1970); transitions between instructional sequences that maintain a focus on learning.
Momentum
The teacher's ability to avoid interruptions or slowing down instruction (Kounin, 1970); keeping an appropriate pace for instruction.
Reinforcement
The use of consequences to strengthen behavior.
Shaping
The teaching of a new skill or behavior by using reinforcement for incremental steps toward the desired goal.
Massed Practice
A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time.
Distributed Practice
A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time or intermittently.
Retention
The level to which students remembers or retains relevant learning information.
Top-Down Processing
A constructivist approach in which students begin with complex problems to solve, and then work out or discover (with teacher guidance) the basic skills and generalizations.
Motivation
An internal process that activates, guides, and maintains behavior over time.
Intrinsic incentive
internal or natural desire or interest
Extrinsic incentive
an environmental reward or consequence affecting attitude
Classical Conditioning
The process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to create a conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning
The use of positive or negative consequences to control the occurrence of behavior.
Flexible Grouping
The formation of groups for a short period of time to support instruction.
Classroom Climate
The way a classroom feels to the participants.
Conflict Contaminants
Conditions in which negative conflict grows.
Conflict Resolution
Techniques employed to reduce or eliminate conflict between classroom participants.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
An hierarchy of requirements for the well-being of a student including deficiency and growth needs.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs includes:
1) Survival
2) Safety
3) Belonging
4) Self-Esteem
5) Intellectual Achievement
6) Aesthetic Appreciation
7) Self-Actualization
Cambourne's Conditions for Learning
Characteristics of the environment that support learning.
Cambourne's Conditions for Learning include:
1) Immersion
2) Demonstration
3) Expectation
4) Responsibility
5) Employment
6) Approximation
7) Engagement
Withitness
The degree to which the teacher is aware of and responsive to student behavior.
Overlapping
A teacher's ability to predict and respond to behavior problems without interrupting a classroom lesson or activity.
Principle of Least Intervention
Correcting misbehavior by using the simplest or least invasive intervention that will work.
Home Contingency
A home-based reinforcement system in which teachers work out with parents an arrangement to give or remove students special privileges at home if they meet well-specified standards of behavior.
Rules
Articulated expectations regarding student behavior; general expectations or standards of behavior.
Procedures
Communicated expectations for specific student behavior.
Group Contingency
A program in which rewards or punishments are given to a class or group as a whole for adhering to or violating rules or procedures.
Instructional Strategy
A plan, approach, or technique used to teach learning objectives.
Assessment
A measurement appraisal process that is ongoing, developmentally appropriate, and dynamic; the process of gathering evidence of learning.
Evaluation
A formal measurement and judgement of student performance or behavior.
Formative Assessment
Assessment data that show a student's progress or lack of progress toward curricular objectives during the process of instruction.
Summative Assessment
Assessment data collected after instruction to evaluate a student's mastery of the curriculum objectives and a teacher's effectiveness at instructional delivery.
Reliability
The consistency of test results over time.
Validity
The truthfulness of the assessment information; a determination of how closely a score report measures what it purports to measure.
Norm-referenced Test
A test takers performance reported in comparison to other test takers in the same age or grade sample. Results are reported in standard scores, percentile ranks, t scores, or z scores.
Criterion-referenced Test
A test takers performance reported as mastery of learning criteria or standards. Passing requires answering a certain percentage correctly. (STAAR, TAKS)
Measurement-based Assessment
Formal or standardized assessments that report learning of constructs in numerical terms; assessment of learning reported in numbers.
Performance-based Assessment
An alternative assessment method based on a student's performance of a skill based on a real-life situation.
Authentic Assessment
Demonstrating learning or a specific skill by constructing a product or solving a problem that could be generated from a real-life situation.
Portfolio
An authentic assessment tool used to assess student progress; a systematic collection of student work documenting evidence of learning.
Parallel Play
Play in which children engage in the same activity side by side but with very little interaction or mutual influence.
Bloom's Taxonomy
An ordering of learning objectives or questions based on levels of thinking from simple learning tasks to more complex.
Bloom's Taxonomy (levels)
1) Knowledge
2) Comprehension
3) Application
4) Analysis
5) Sythesis
6) Evaluation
Primacy Effect
The tendency for learners to remember items at the beginning of a list more easily than other items.
Recency Effect
The tendency for learners to remember items at the end of a list more easily than other items.
Metacognition
Knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn.
Prior Knowledge
Knowledge about or experience with a topic that enables connections for learning.
Risk-Free Environment
A classroom in which all learners feel their opinions and contributions are valued.
Self-Concept
One's perception of oneself.
Self-Efficacy
The belief that one is capable of accomplishing something.
Transfer
The ability to apply learning in one area to learning in another area.
Reflective Practice
is a term which encompasses ways teachers may self-assess teaching practices and critically examine their work. Through reflection, teachers analyze lessons and teaching practices, which helps them develop as professionals.
ELL students must acquire:
both social and academic language proficiency in English.
Intermediate level of reading proficiency
The learner will have the ability to read and understand simple, high-frequency English used in routine academic and social contexts.
The learner should be able to seek clarification from the teacher in English.
Due Process
describes the parents' rights to disagree with an IEP or an evaluation of their child's abilities. Disagreements may be settled through an impartial due process hearing presided over by an officer appointed by the state.
Advanced level of English proficieny
can participate in most writing activities, with second-language acquisition support.
Uses predominately grade-appropriate English to write, using some detail.
With support from the teacher, has an emerging ability to express herself using self-generated, connected text
Occasionally exhibits second-language acquisition errors.
James Marcia
James Marcia is a Canadian developmental psychologist who expanded on Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development. His research and writings have largely focused on adolescent development. His work was to identify and classify processes that adolescents go through when they experience identity crises.
The four processes that Marcia defined are:
Foreclosure, Identity Diffusion, Moratorium, and Identity Achievement.
Foreclosure
In this state, an adolescent may blindly accept whatever ideology or values system that has been given to them from their parents or family members. This indicates a "pseudo-identity" that is too rigid or fixed to meet life's future crises.
Identity Diffusion
This state is a struggle of identity that is marked by no real progress in deciding an occupation or ideology of one's own. There is no commitment to anything or ability to develop one's sense of self. An individual may have had an identity crisis, but it would not have been resolved.
Moratorium
This state marks little real commitment to an ideology or occupation but is also a state of experimentation. It also marks an ongoing identity crisis and the examination of alternate life choices.
Identity Achievement
This state is the state of clarity and of development of one's identity. It marks a commitment to an ideology or more direction in terms of occupational goals. These decisions have been autonomously made and developed by a formed ego identity.
Carol Gilligan
Carol Gilligan was born on November 28, 1936, in New York City. She has received her doctorate degree in social psychology from Harvard University in 1964 and began teaching at Harvard in 1967. Then in 1970 she became a research assistant for the great theorist of moral development, Lawrence Kohlberg.
Gilligan's Stages of the Ethic of Care
Three stages: Preconventional, conventional, and postconventional
Preconventional (Gilligan)
Goal is individual survival
Conventional (Gilligan)
Self sacrifice is goodness
Postconventional (Gilligan)
Principle of nonviolence (Do not hurt self or others)
Piaget Cognitive Characteristics
Piaget's four stages of intellectual (or cognitive) development are:
Sensorimotor
. Birth through ages 18-24 months
Preoperational
. Toddlerhood (18-24 months) through early childhood (age 7)
Concrete operational
. Ages 7 to 12
Formal operational
. Adolescence through adulthood
Erikson Psychosocial Stages
1. Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (Hope)
2. Learning Autonomy Versus Shame (Will)
3. Learning Initiative Versus Guilt (Purpose)
4. Industry Versus Inferiority (Competence)
5. Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity)
6. Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love)
7. Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (Care)
8. Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom)
Kohlberg Moral stages
Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality:At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine), we don't have a personal code of morality
Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.
• Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.
Level 2 - Conventional morality: At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models.
•
Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.
• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
Level 3 - Post-conventional morality:Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice.
• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals.
The issues are not always clear cut. For example, in Heinz's dilemma the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.
• Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone.
E.g. human rights, justice and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.
Human development physical stages
1.- Prebirth: Potential .
2.- Birth: Hope - When a child is born,
3.- Infancy (Ages 0-3): Vitality - The infant is a vibrant and seemingly unlimited source of energy.
4.- Early Childhood (Ages 3-6): Playfulness - When young children play, they recreate the world anew.
5.- Middle Childhood (Ages 6-8): Imagination
6.- Late Childhood (Ages 9-11): Ingenuity .
7.-Adolescence (Ages 12-20): Passion -
8.- Early Adulthood (Ages 20-35): Enterprise -
9.-Midlife (Ages 35-50): Contemplation
10.- Mature Adulthood (Ages 50-80): Benevolence
11.- Late Adulthood (Age 80+): Wisdom
12.-Death & Dying: Life -
Developmental characteristics of EC-6 Learners
Physical
Pre-K-Kindergarten
Active, motor development, need frequent bathroom breaks, developing large muscles, developing eye-hand coordination, may experience difficulty in focus eyes.
Grade 1-4
Tend to be more active, need to move about often, need frequent breaks, need rest periods, better large muscle control, may be farsighted, may be prone to accidents.
Grade 5-6
The beginning of noticeable differences in height between sexes, able to maintain focus for longer periods of time, less restless, more control of both fine and large muscles, the beginning signs of sexual masturbation.
Cognitive
Pre-K-Kindergarten
Preoperational
, short attention span, self-regulating patterns of language.
Grade 1-4
Move from preoperational to
Concrete
need a variety of activities, ready to learn.
Grade 5-6
Beginning to move to
abstract thinking,
still rely on hands-on learning to understand concept optimally.
Social
Pre-K-Kindergarten
Initiative versus guilt, frequent changes in friends, parallel play, enjoy sharing time, need explorations and investigations, developing skills of choice and independence.
Grade 1-4
Industry versus inferiority, more selective in choosing friends, prefers organized games, focus on rules, may argue frequently, enjoy talking, may tattletale.
Grade 5-6
Interested in peer groups, still in industry versus inferiority stages.
Emotional
Pre-K-Kindergarten
Preconventional, frequent but brief disagreements, awareness of sex roles, emotions readily shown, tends to be teacher pleasers, need firm limits with consistency.
Grade 1-4
Sensitive to criticism and rejection, eager to please, sensitive to others.
Grade 5-6
More sensitive to opinion of peer group, the beginning stage of infatuation, less reliance on parents.
Maslow's Hierarchy stages
1.- Basic Human Needs met.
2.- Safety Needs.
3.- Sense of belonging.
4.- Sense of Self- Worth.
5. Self-Actualization needs
Howard Gardner
Multiple Intelligences
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences
1. Verbal-linguistic intelligence
(well-developed verbal skills and
sensitivity to the sounds, meanings and rhythms of words)
2. Logical-mathematical intelligence
(ability to think conceptually and
abstractly, and capacity to discern logical and numerical patterns)
3. Spatial-visual intelligence
(capacity to think in images and pictures, to
visualize accurately and abstractly)
4. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
(ability to control one's body movements
and to handle objects skillfully)
5. Musical intelligences
(ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch
and timber)
6. Interpersonal intelligence
(capacity to detect and respond appropriately
to the moods, motivations and desires of others)
7. Intrapersonal
(capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings,
values, beliefs and thinking processes)
8. Naturalist intelligence
(ability to recognize and categorize plants,
animals and other objects in nature)
9. Existential intelligence
(sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions
about human existence such as, What is the meaning of life? Why do we
die? How did we get here?
(
manipulatives
concrete items used to assist students as they develop or learn a concept.
Levels of Questions in Bloom's Taxonomy
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Knowledge
This is the lowest level of questions and requires students to recall information. Knowledge questions usually require students to identify information in basically the same form it was presented. Some examples of knowledge questions include ...
"What is the biggest city in Japan?"
"Who wrote War and Peace?"
"How many ounces in a pound?"
Words often used in knowledge questions include know, who, define, what, name, where, list, and when.
Comprehension
Simply stated, comprehension is the way in which ideas are organized into categories. Comprehension questions are those that ask students to take several bits of information and put them into a single category or grouping. These questions go beyond simple recall and require students to combine data together. Some examples of comprehension questions include ...
"How would you illustrate the water cycle?"
"What is the main idea of this story?"
"If I put these three blocks together, what shape do they form?"
Words often used in comprehension questions include describe, use your own words, outline, explain, discuss, and compare.
Application
At this level, teachers ask students to take information they already know and apply it to a new situation. In other words, they must use their knowledge to determine a correct response. Some examples of application questions include ...
"How would you use your knowledge of latitude and longitude to locate Greenland?"
"What happens when you multiply each of these numbers by nine?"
"If you had eight inches of water in your basement and a hose, how would you use the hose to get the water out?"
Words often used in application questions include apply, manipulate, put to use, employ, dramatize, demonstrate, interpret, and choose.
Analysis
An analysis question is one that asks a student to break down something into its component parts. To analyze requires students to identify reasons, causes, or motives and reach conclusions or generalizations. Some examples of analysis questions include ...
"What are some of the factors that cause rust?"
"Why did the United States go to war with England?"
"Why do we call all these animals mammals?"
Words often used in analysis questions include analyze, why, take apart, diagram, draw conclusions, simplify, distinguish, and survey.
Synthesis
Synthesis questions challenge students to engage in creative and original thinking. These questions invite students to produce original ideas and solve problems. There's always a variety of potential responses to synthesis questions. Some examples of synthesis questions include ...
"How would you assemble these items to create a windmill?"
"How would your life be different if you could breathe under water?"
"Construct a tower one foot tall using only four blocks."
"Put these words together to form a complete sentence."
Words often used in synthesis questions include compose, construct, design, revise, create, formulate, produce, and plan.
Evaluation
Evaluation requires an individual to make a judgment about something. We are asked to judge the value of an idea, a candidate, a work of art, or a solution to a problem. When students are engaged in decision-making and problem-solving, they should be thinking at this level. Evaluation questions do not have single right answers. Some examples of evaluation questions include ...
"What do you think about your work so far?"
"What story did you like the best?"
"Do you think that the pioneers did the right thing?"
"Why do you think Benjamin Franklin is so famous?"
Words often used in evaluation questions include judge, rate, assess, evaluate, What is the best ..., value, criticize, and compare.
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, developed a theory of how cognition develops and changes over time. Piaget proposed that a child's intellect progresses through four stages: 1. Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) 2. Preoperational (2 to 7 years) 3. Concrete operational (7 to 11 years) 4. Formal operational (11 years to adulthood) Children learn through active interaction and manipulation of the environment. The stage the child is in determines how they see the world. Piaget believed all students pass through the stages in order and cannot skip any stage.
Schemes
Mental patterns that guide behavior; cognitive structures that help children process and organize information to make sense of the environment
Assimilation
Understanding new experiences in terms of existing schemes
Accommodation
Modifying existing schemes to fit new situations in the environment. When old ways of dealing with the environment don't work, a child modifies an existing scheme stimulated by new information or a new experience
Adaptation
The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment through assimilation or accommodation. According to Piaget, this is how learning occurs.
Equilibration
The process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences. According to Piaget, learning depends on this process so it is important for teachers to confront students with new experiences or data to advance their cognitive development.
Disequilibrium
7 of 124
Disequilibrium
An imbalance between what a child understands and what the child encounters through new experiences.
Sensorimotor Stage
The earliest stage (birth to 2 years) of cognitive development during which infants learn about the environment by using their senses and motor skills. Children develop "object permanence" and progress from reflexive behavior to goal-directed behavior.
Object Permanence
The fact that objects are physically stable and exist even when the objects are not in the child's physical presence. This enables the child to start using symbols to represent things in their minds so they can think about them.
Preoperational Stage
The second stage (2 to 7 years) of cognitive development in which children learn to represent things in their mind. During this stage students develop the ability to use symbols to represent objects in the world. Thinking remains egocentric and centered.
Egocentric
Believing that everyone sees the world as you do.
Conservation
The concept that certain properties of an object remain the same regardless of changes in other properties.
Centration
Paying attention to only one aspect of an object or situation; what is commonly called tunnel vision.
Reversibility
The ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse thinking to return to the starting point.
Class Inclusion
The ability to think simultaneously about a whole class of objects and about relationships among subordinate classes; a framework for thinking.
Concrete Operational Stage
The third stage (7 to 11 years) of cognitive development in which children develop the capacity for logical reasoning and understanding of conservation but can use the skills only in dealing with familiar situations. New abilities include operations that are reversible. Thinking is decentered, allowing them to understand that others may have different perceptions, and problem solving is less restricted by egocentrism. Abstract thinking is not possible.
Inferred Reality
The ability to understand stimuli in the context of relevant information. Preschoolers see what they see with little ability to infer the meaning behind what they see. Students in the concrete operational stage respond to inferred reality and see things in the context of other meanings.
Seriation
Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, volume, etc. Seriation involves arranging things in a logical progression such as from smallest to largest or shortest or tallest.
Transivity
A skill learned during the concrete operational stage in which children can mentally arrange and compare objects. Transitivity is the ability to infer a relationship between two objects on the basis of knowledge of their respective relationships with a third object. (If a>b and b>c, then a>c)
Inversion
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. (+X is reversed by -X)
Reciprocity
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. (MM)
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, developed a theory of cognitive development based on two key ideas. He proposed children understand the world based on social interactions within their culture and the sign systems that represent ideas. These systems include symbols used to think, solve problems, and communicate. Vygotsky's theory highlights the socio-cultural nature of learning.
Self-regulation
According to Vygotsky's theory, self-regulation is the ability to think and solve problems without the help of others. Learning is a social process and learning occurs when self-regulation is achieved.
Sign Systems
Symbols that cultures create to help people think, solve problems, and communicate.
Private Speech
Inner speech or children's self-talk that guides thinking and actions; an important consideration in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development.
Zone of Proximal Development
Level of development immediately above a student's present level. The tasks within the zone of proximal development require assistance from the teacher or a more knowledgeable other. Students cannot perform tasks alone within the zone of proximal development. Activities designed within this zone are guided activities.
Scaffolding
Support for learning and problem solving that include clues, reminders, examples, or encouragement. Scaffolding allows a student to make a learning connection and become independent as a learner.
Cooperative Learning
Strategies in which students work together to help one another learn by sharing perspectives and providing models of slightly advanced thinking.
Developmentally Appropriate Education
Instruction intentionally adapted to the current developmental level of students rather than planned according their chronological age or grade level.
Psychosocial Theory
A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development.
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Trained by Freud as a psychoanalyst, Erikson proposed people pass through eight psychosocial stages of development. A psychosocial crisis is resolved at each stage.
Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
Part of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development addresses children's moral reasoning. Piaget proposed that as children's thinking becomes more advanced their understanding of moral problems deepens. 1. Heteronomous Morality (based on rules and consequences) 2. Autonomous Morality (based on mutual respect and recognition)
Heteronomous Morality
According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the younger stage when children think rules are unchangeable and that breaking rules leads to punishment.
Autonomous Morality
According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the older stage when children understand that rules are created and that punishments are not automatic.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning
Lawrence Kohlberg proposed students pass through three levels and six stages of moral reasoning: I. Preconventional Level Stage 1 Punishment and Obedience Orientation Stage 2 Instrumental Realist Orientation II. Conventional Level Stage 3 "Good boy-Good girl" Orientation Stage 4 "Law and Order" Orientation III. Postconventional Level Stage 5 Social Contract Orientation Stage 6 Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
Preconventional Level of Morality
Stages 1 and 2 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which children make moral decisions in their own interests to avoid punishments. Safety is the main consideration.
Conventional Level of Morality
Stages 3 and 4 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning during which children make moral decisions in consideration of others. Fairness is the main consideration.
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
Social class defined in terms of income, occupation, education, possessions, and prestige in society. A measure of prestige within a social group.
Ethnicity
A culture, history, and sense of identity shared by a group of people; a way of life. A shared cultural heritage and traditions often based on race, religion, language, or national identity.
Bilingual Education
Instructional programs for students who speak little or no English in which instruction is provided in the native language as well as English. The four types of programs include: language immersion; transitional; paired bilingual; and two-way bilingual.
Limited English Proficient (LEP)
A student who possesses limited mastery of the English language affecting instruction and learning.
English as a Second Language (ESL)
Instruction program for students who are not native speakers of English in which all instruction is provided in English; an English immersion instructional program in which all subjects are taught in English.
Multicultural Education
An approach to education that includes non-European perspectives in the curriculum; an educational approach designed to improve outcomes for all students of different cultural backgrounds and genders.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
A special education law that requires schools to educate students with disabilities in least restrictive environments to the greatest extent of their abilities using plans tailored to the individual needs of the students.
Individualized Education Program (IEP)
A customized plan for a student with a disability developed by an ARD committee that guides the instruction and services the student receives.
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
Provision in IDEA that requires students with disabilities to be educated with nondisabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate.
Admission Review and Dismissal (ARD)
A committee composed of the parent, administrator, assessment personnel, regular education teacher, special education teacher, and other pertinent representatives who meet on a regular basis to make decisions in regard to admission, services, and dismissal from special education.
Inclusion
An instructional arrangement whereby students with disabilities receive instruction and services in a general education setting with regular education peers.
Gifted and Talented (GT)
Instructional programs designed for students with exceptional intellectual ability, creativity, or talent; enrichment programs.
Learning Styles
A theory of individual learner preferences proposed by Dunn & Dunn addressing environmental factors.
Multiple Intelligences
An intelligence theory developed by Howard Gardner that changes the question from "How smart are you?" to "How are you smart?" The eight intelligences include: 1. interpersonal 2. intrapersonal 3. musical; linguistic 4. spatial 5. logical mathematical 6. bodily-kinesthetic 7. linguistic 8. naturalist
Direct Instruction
A teacher-directed approach to instruction; an instructional approach in which the teacher transmits information through goal-oriented, structured lessons. The seven parts to a direct instruction lesson include: 1. State learning objectives 2. Review prerequisites 3. Present new material 4. Conduct learning probes 5. Provide independent practice 6. Assessment and feedback 7. Review and provide distributed practice
Mental Set
Students' attitudes of readiness to begin a lesson that involves motivation and activation of prior knowledge on the topic of instruction; focus.
Wait Time
The length of time a teacher waits for a student to answer a question before helping the student answer or asking another student. Research indicates teachers who wait approximately 3 seconds after asking a question get better results that teachers who wait less (Tobin, 1986).
Calling Order
The order in which students are called on by the teacher to answer questions during the course of a classroom activity or lesson. Most teachers expand the definition of calling order to include the decision of whether to ask a question and then call on a student or call on student and then phrase the question.
Choral Response
Responses to questions made by an entire group of student in unison designed to provide the highest level of support with immediate feedback.
Time-on-Task
The portion of allocated time students are actively engaged in learning; engaged learning time. Allocated time refers to the opportunity for the entire class to engage in learning while engaged time differs for each student.
Objective
The focus of a lesson; what students are expected to learn.
Overt/Covert Behavior
Overt behavior is observable and covert behavior is cognitive and involves thinking. Teachers must generate overt behavior to monitor students' progress toward learning goals.
Pacing
The amount of content covered; rate at which content is taught with understanding.
Smoothness
The teacher's ability to maintain a continued focus on a meaningful sequence of instruction (Kounin, 1970); transitions between instructional sequences that maintain a focus on learning.
Momentum
The teacher's ability to avoid interruptions or slowing down instruction (Kounin, 1970); keeping an appropriate pace for instruction.
Reinforcement
The use of consequences to strengthen behavior. Positive-pleasurable consequence given to strengthen behavior Negative-release from an unpleasant situation given to strengthen behavior
Shaping
The teaching of a new skill or behavior by using reinforcement for incremental steps toward the desired goal.
Massed Practice
A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time.
Distributed Practice
A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time or intermittently.
Retention
The level to which students remembers or retains relevant learning information. Factors affecting retention include emotions, degree of original learning, practice, etc.
Top-Down Processing
A constructivist approach in which students begin with complex problems to solve, and then work out or discover (with teacher guidance) the basic skills and generalizations.
Motivation
An internal process that activates, guides, and maintains behavior over time. Intrinsic incentive-internal or natural desire or interest. Extrinsic incentive-an environmental reward or consequence affecting attitude.
Classical Conditioning
The process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to create a conditioned response. (example: raise your arm in the air and the group gets quiet or ring a bell and the students change groups)
Operant Conditioning
The use of positive or negative consequences to control the occurrence of behavior. (example: awarding points for reading)
Flexible Grouping
The formation of groups for a short period of time to support instruction; using a variety of grouping formats to support learning. Formats include large, small, partner, and one-on-one. Heterogeneous-group members differ in skills, needs, abilities, interests, learning styles, etc. Homogeneous-group member have similar skills, abilities, interests, learning styles, etc.
Classroom Climate
The way a classroom feels to the participants.
Conflict Contaminants
Conditions in which negative conflict grows. Some conflict contaminants include negativism, unrealistic expectations, poor communication, personal stressors, the savior syndrome, jumping to conclusions, lack of support and trust, and preference protection (Nath, p.155)
Conflict Resolution
Techniques employed to reduce or eliminate conflict between classroom participants. Techniques include using conciliatory gestures, avoidance, altering group structure, role clarification, communication, direct order, compromise, etc.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
An hierarchy of requirements for the well-being of a student including deficiency and growth needs. The hierarchy includes: 1. Survival 2. Safety 3. Belonging 4. Self-Esteem 5. Intellectual Achievement 6. Aesthetic Appreciation 7. Self-Actualization
Cambourne's Conditions for Learning
Characteristics of the environment that support learning. 1. Immersion 2. Demonstration 3. Expectation 4. Responsibility 5. Employment 6. Approximation 7. Engagement
Withitness
The degree to which the teacher is aware of and responsive to student behavior; a heightened sense of attentiveness to relevant student behavior.
Overlapping
A teacher's ability to predict and respond to behavior problems without interrupting a classroom lesson or activity.
Principle of Least Intervention
Correcting misbehaviors by using the simplest or least invasive intervention that will work. Possible steps include: 1. Prevention 2. Using nonverbal cues 3. Verbal Reminders 3. Consequences
Home Contingency
A home-based reinforcement system in which teachers work out with parents an arrangement to give or remove students special privileges at home if they meet well-specified standards of behavior.
Rules
Articulated expectations regarding student behavior; general expectations or standards of behavior. (example: respect others)
Procedures
Communicated expectations for specific student behavior. (example: keep hands and objects to yourself as we walk down the hall to the library)
Group Contingency
A program in which rewards or punishments are given to a class or group as a whole for adhering to or violating rules or procedures.
Instructional Strategy
A way of instruction that meets the needs, goals, and objectives of the learners; a plan, approach, or technique used to teach learning objectives. Teacher-centered-associated with direct models of instruction in which teachers provide information and students follow with practice sessions (example: deductive lessons) Student-centered-associated with constructivist models of instruction in which students are more active and interactive in the learning process (example: inductive and discovery learning)
Fair Use Guidelines
Guidelines limiting the rights of copyright holders and allowing portions of copyrighted materials to be used for educational purposes; guidelines for portion, time, amount, and distribution of copyrighted materials for educational purposes.
Filtering Software
Software installed on computers to prevent unwanted or inappropriate viewing of Web sites or information accessed via the Internet.
Computer-Assisted Instruction
A self-learning technique using computer software; mastery of learning objectives involving interaction of the students with technological programmed instructional materials.
Software Piracy
Any unauthorized use of computer software. Piracy is determined by the type of software and license agreement. Freeware-public domain and free to use and copy Shareware-free for a trial period and then requires purchase and registration Commercial-requires purchase and registration for any use
Assistive Technology
Technology for students with disabilities that assists achievement of goals as specified in the student's Individualized Education Program (IEP).
Assessment
A measurement appraisal process that is ongoing, developmentally appropriate, and dynamic; the process of gathering evidence of learning.
Evaluation
A formal measurement and judgment of student performance or behavior.
Formative Assessment
Assessment data that show a student's progress or lack of progress toward curricular objectives during the process of instruction.
Summative Assessment
Assessment data collected after instruction to evaluate a student's mastery of the curriculum objectives and a teacher's effectiveness at instructional delivery.
Reliability
The consistency of test results over time. A reliable measure is one that yields similar results time after time when administered to the same type or level of students under the same conditions.
Validity
The truthfulness of the assessment information; a determination of how closely a score report measures what it purports to measure. (Does it measure the content?)
Norm-referenced Test
A test takers performance reported in comparison to other test takers in the same age or grade sample. Results are reported in standard scores, percentile ranks, t scores, or z scores.
Criterion-referenced Test
A test takers performance reported as mastery of learning criteria or standards. Passing requires answering a certain percentage correctly. The TAKS test is a criterion-referenced test.
Measurement-based Assessment
Formal or standardized assessments that report learning of constructs in numerical terms; assessment of learning reported in numbers.
Performance-based Assessment
An alternative assessment method based on a student's performance of a skill based on a real-life situation.
Authentic Assessment
Demonstrating learning or a specific skill by constructing a product or solving a problem that could be generated from a real-life situation.
Portfolio
An authentic assessment tool used to assess student progress; a systematic collection of student work documenting evidence of learning.
Percentile Rank
Standardized scores that compare an individual with other test takers and report that he/she scored as well as or better than a certain percentage of the sample group.
Site-Based Decision Making
School-based, collaborative management; a form of management in which the participants in the school community make decisions regarding governance.
Professional Development Appraisal System (PDAS)
The current appraisal system used by most of the schools in Texas concentrating on eight domains:
Professionalism
How teachers see themselves as members of the learning community and teaching profession as well as the images they project; behaving in an ethical manner when interacting with colleagues, students, and parents.
Mentor
An experienced teacher or administrator who provides guidance and customized assistance to promote retention and success of new teachers.
Professional Development
Activities that enhance teachers' professional knowledge, competence, and expertise.
Educators' Code of Ethics
A code that sets standards and expectations for ethical practice by Texas teachers; a document outlining ethical conduct toward colleagues, school officials, parents, and members of the community,
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
A federal law enacted in 1974 that sets the requirements to protect the privacy of parents or legal caregivers of students.
Vertical Teaming
All levels of district employees meet to learn about and plan for the entire district; gaining knowledge from all levels of the district to make appropriate decisions. (example: coordination between grade levels)
Horizontal Teaming
Members from the same level of the district meet to learn about and plan for the individual school or grade level. (example: collaboration within a grade level)
Parallel Play
Play in which children engage in the same activity side by side but with very little interaction or mutual influence.
Bloom's Taxonomy
An ordering of learning objectives or questions based on levels of thinking from simple learning tasks to more complex. The levels of the cognitive domain include: 1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension 3. Application 4. Analysis 5. Sythesis 6. Evaluation
Primacy Effect
The tendency for learners to remember items at the beginning of a list more easily than other items; remembering information at the beginning of a text or lesson.
Recency Effect
The tendency for learners to remember items at the end of a list more easily than other items; remembering information at the end of a text or lesson.
Metacognition
Knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn; thinking about thinking.
Prior Knowledge
Knowledge about or experience with a topic that enables connections for learning; a basis for comprehension or understanding.
Risk-Free Environment
A classroom in which all learners feel their opinions and contributions are valued.
Self-Concept
One's perception of oneself; how one feels about self.
Self-Efficacy
The belief that one is capable of accomplishing something.
Transfer
The ability to apply learning in one area to learning in another area; the effects learning in one area has on new learning or applications. Positive transfer- the ability to appropriately apply learning in one area to another area; learning in one area enhances learning in new contexts. Negative transfer- inappropriately applying learning in one area to learning in another area: learning in one area makes it more difficult or confusing to learn in another area.
Formal Operational
The fourth stage of cognitive development (11 years to adulthood) in which abstract and symbolic thought is possible. Problems can be solved through the use of experimentation and critical thinking.
Postconventional Level of Morality
Stages 5 and 6 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which students define their own values in terms of ethical principles. Ethical behavior is a decision of conscience according to self-chosen principles and laws can be changed for the good of society.
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
developed a theory of how cognition develops and changes over time. He proposed that a child's intellect progresses through four stages: 1. Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) 2. Preoperational (2 to 7 years) 3. Concrete operational (7 to 11 years) 4. Formal operational (11 years to adulthood) Children learn through active interaction and manipulation of the environment. The stage the child is in determines how they see the world. He believed all students pass through the stages in order and cannot skip any stage.
Schemes
Mental patterns that guide behavior; cognitive structures that help children process and organize information to make sense of the environment
Assimilation
Understanding new experiences in terms of existing schemes
Accommodation
Modifying existing schemes to fit new situations in the environment. When old ways of dealing with the environment don't work, a child modifies an existing scheme stimulated by new information or a new experience
Adaptation
The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment through assimilation or accommodation. According to Piaget, this is how learning occurs.
Equilibration
The process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences. According to Piaget, learning depends on this process so it is important for teachers to confront students with new experiences or data to advance their cognitive development.
Disequilibrium
An imbalance between what a child understands and what the child encounters through new experiences.
Sensorimotor Stage
In this stage of cognitive development, infants learn about the environment by using their senses and motor skills. Children develop "object permanence" and progress from reflexive behavior to goal-directed behavior.
Object Permanence
The fact that objects are physically stable and exist even when the objects are not in the child's physical presence. This enables the child to start using symbols to represent things in their minds so they can think about them.
Preoperational Stage
In this stage of cognitive development, children learn to represent things in their mind. During this stage students develop the ability to use symbols to represent objects in the world. Thinking remains egocentric and centered.
Egocentric
Believing that everyone sees the world as you do.
Conservation
The concept that certain properties of an object remain the same regardless of changes in other properties.
Centration
Paying attention to only one aspect of an object or situation; what is commonly called tunnel vision.
Reversibility
The ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse thinking to return to the starting point.
Class Inclusion
The ability to think simultaneously about a whole class of objects and about relationships among subordinate classes; a framework for thinking.
Concrete Operational Stage
In this stage of cognitive development, children develop the capacity for logical reasoning and understanding of conservation but can use the skills only in dealing with familiar situations. New abilities include operations that are reversible. Thinking is decentered, allowing them to understand that others may have different perceptions, and problem solving is less restricted by egocentrism. Abstract thinking is not possible.
Inferred Reality
The ability to understand stimuli in the context of relevant information. Preschoolers see what they see with little ability to infer the meaning behind what they see. Students in the concrete operational stage respond to inferred reality and see things in the context of other meanings.
Seriation
Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, volume, etc. This involves arranging things in a logical progression such as from smallest to largest or shortest or tallest.
Transivity
A skill learned during the concrete operational stage in which children can mentally arrange and compare objects. This is the ability to infer a relationship between two objects on the basis of knowledge of their respective relationships with a third object. (If a>b and b>c, then a>c)
Inversion
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. (+X is reversed by -X)
Reciprocity
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. (MM)
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, developed a theory of cognitive development based on two key ideas. He proposed children understand the world based on social interactions within their culture and the sign systems that represent ideas. These systems include symbols used to think, solve problems, and communicate. Vygotsky's theory highlights the socio-cultural nature of learning.
Self-regulation
According to Vygotsky's theory, self-regulation is the ability to think and solve problems without the help of others. Learning is a social process and learning occurs when self-regulation is achieved.
Sign Systems
Symbols that cultures create to help people think, solve problems, and communicate.
Private Speech
Inner speech or children's self-talk that guides thinking and actions; an important consideration in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development.
Zone of Proximal Development
Level of development immediately above a student's present level. The tasks within the zone of proximal development require assistance from the teacher or a more knowledgeable other. Students cannot perform tasks alone within the zone of proximal development. Activities designed within this zone are guided activities.
Scaffolding
Support for learning and problem solving that include clues, reminders, examples, or encouragement. Scaffolding allows a student to make a learning connection and become independent as a learner.
Cooperative Learning
Strategies in which students work together to help one another learn by sharing perspectives and providing models of slightly advanced thinking.
Developmentally Appropriate Education
Instruction intentionally adapted to the current developmental level of students rather than planned according their chronological age or grade level.
Psychosocial Theory
A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development.
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Trained by Freud as a psychoanalyst, Erikson proposed people pass through eight psychosocial stages of development. A psychosocial crisis is resolved at each stage.
Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
Part of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development addresses children's moral reasoning. Piaget proposed that as children's thinking becomes more advanced their understanding of moral problems deepens. 1. Heteronomous Morality (based on rules and consequences) 2. Autonomous Morality (based on mutual respect and recognition)
Heteronomous Morality
According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the younger stage when children think rules are unchangeable and that breaking rules leads to punishment.
Autonomous Morality
According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the older stage when children understand that rules are created and that punishments are not automatic.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning
Lawrence Kohlberg proposed students pass through three levels and six stages of moral reasoning: I. Preconventional Level Stage 1 Punishment and Obedience Orientation Stage 2 Instrumental Realist Orientation II. Conventional Level Stage 3 "Good boy-Good girl" Orientation Stage 4 "Law and Order" Orientation III. Postconventional Level Stage 5 Social Contract Orientation Stage 6 Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
Preconventional Level of Morality
Stages 1 and 2 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which children make moral decisions in their own interests to avoid punishments. Safety is the main consideration.
Conventional Level of Morality
Stages 3 and 4 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning during which children make moral decisions in consideration of others. Fairness is the main consideration.
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
Social class defined in terms of income, occupation, education, possessions, and prestige in society. A measure of prestige within a social group.
Ethnicity
A culture, history, and sense of identity shared by a group of people; a way of life. A shared cultural heritage and traditions often based on race, religion, language, or national identity.
Bilingual Education
Instructional programs for students who speak little or no English in which instruction is provided in the native language as well as English. The four types of programs include: language immersion; transitional; paired bilingual; and two-way bilingual.
Limited English Proficient (LEP)
A student who possesses limited mastery of the English language affecting instruction and learning.
English as a Second Language (ESL)
Instruction program for students who are not native speakers of English in which all instruction is provided in English; an English immersion instructional program in which all subjects are taught in English.
Multicultural Education
An approach to education that includes non-European perspectives in the curriculum; an educational approach designed to improve outcomes for all students of different cultural backgrounds and genders.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
A special education law that requires schools to educate students with disabilities in least restrictive environments to the greatest extent of their abilities using plans tailored to the individual needs of the students.
Individualized Education Program (IEP)
A customized plan for a student with a disability developed by an ARD committee that guides the instruction and services the student receives.
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
Provision in IDEA that requires students with disabilities to be educated with nondisabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate.
Admission Review and Dismissal (ARD)
A committee composed of the parent, administrator, assessment personnel, regular education teacher, special education teacher, and other pertinent representatives who meet on a regular basis to make decisions in regard to admission, services, and dismissal from special education.
Inclusion
An instructional arrangement whereby students with disabilities receive instruction and services in a general education setting with regular education peers.
Gifted and Talented (GT)
Instructional programs designed for students with exceptional intellectual ability, creativity, or talent; enrichment programs.
Learning Styles
A theory of individual learner preferences proposed by Dunn & Dunn addressing environmental factors.
Multiple Intelligences
An intelligence theory developed by Howard Gardner that changes the question from "How smart are you?" to "How are you smart?" The eight intelligences include: 1. interpersonal 2. intrapersonal 3. musical; linguistic 4. spatial 5. logical mathematical 6. bodily-kinesthetic 7. linguistic 8. naturalist
Direct Instruction
A teacher-directed approach to instruction; an instructional approach in which the teacher transmits information through goal-oriented, structured lessons. The seven parts to a direct instruction lesson include: 1. State learning objectives 2. Review prerequisites 3. Present new material 4. Conduct learning probes 5. Provide independent practice 6. Assessment and feedback 7. Review and provide distributed practice
Mental Set
Students' attitudes of readiness to begin a lesson that involves motivation and activation of prior knowledge on the topic of instruction; focus.
Wait Time
The length of time a teacher waits for a student to answer a question before helping the student answer or asking another student. Research indicates teachers who wait approximately 3 seconds after asking a question get better results that teachers who wait less (Tobin, 1986).
Calling Order
The order in which students are called on by the teacher to answer questions during the course of a classroom activity or lesson. Most teachers expand the definition of calling order to include the decision of whether to ask a question and then call on a student or call on student and then phrase the question.
Choral Response
Responses to questions made by an entire group of student in unison designed to provide the highest level of support with immediate feedback.
Time-on-Task
The portion of allocated time students are actively engaged in learning; engaged learning time. Allocated time refers to the opportunity for the entire class to engage in learning while engaged time differs for each student.
Objective
The focus of a lesson; what students are expected to learn.
Overt/Covert Behavior
Overt behavior is observable and covert behavior is cognitive and involves thinking. Teachers must generate overt behavior to monitor students' progress toward learning goals.
Pacing
The amount of content covered; rate at which content is taught with understanding.
Smoothness
The teacher's ability to maintain a continued focus on a meaningful sequence of instruction (Kounin, 1970); transitions between instructional sequences that maintain a focus on learning.
Momentum
The teacher's ability to avoid interruptions or slowing down instruction (Kounin, 1970); keeping an appropriate pace for instruction.
Reinforcement
The use of consequences to strengthen behavior. Positive-pleasurable consequence given to strengthen behavior Negative-release from an unpleasant situation given to strengthen behavior
Shaping
The teaching of a new skill or behavior by using reinforcement for incremental steps toward the desired goal.
Massed Practice
A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time.
Distributed Practice
A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time or intermittently.
Retention
The level to which students remembers or retains relevant learning information. Factors affecting retention include emotions, degree of original learning, practice, etc.
Top-Down Processing
A constructivist approach in which students begin with complex problems to solve, and then work out or discover (with teacher guidance) the basic skills and generalizations.
Motivation
An internal process that activates, guides, and maintains behavior over time. Intrinsic incentive-internal or natural desire or interest. Extrinsic incentive-an environmental reward or consequence affecting attitude.
Classical Conditioning
The process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to create a conditioned response. (example: raise your arm in the air and the group gets quiet or ring a bell and the students change groups)
Operant Conditioning
The use of positive or negative consequences to control the occurrence of behavior. (example: awarding points for reading)
Flexible Grouping
The formation of groups for a short period of time to support instruction; using a variety of grouping formats to support learning. Formats include large, small, partner, and one-on-one. Heterogeneous-group members differ in skills, needs, abilities, interests, learning styles, etc. Homogeneous-group member have similar skills, abilities, interests, learning styles, etc.
Classroom Climate
The way a classroom feels to the participants.
Conflict Contaminants
Conditions in which negative conflict grows. Some conflict contaminants include negativism, unrealistic expectations, poor communication, personal stressors, the savior syndrome, jumping to conclusions, lack of support and trust, and preference protection (Nath, p.155)
Conflict Resolution
Techniques employed to reduce or eliminate conflict between classroom participants. Techniques include using conciliatory gestures, avoidance, altering group structure, role clarification, communication, direct order, compromise, etc.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
An hierarchy of requirements for the well-being of a student including deficiency and growth needs. The hierarchy includes: 1. Survival 2. Safety 3. Belonging 4. Self-Esteem 5. Intellectual Achievement 6. Aesthetic Appreciation 7. Self-Actualization
Cambourne's Conditions for Learning
Characteristics of the environment that support learning. 1. Immersion 2. Demonstration 3. Expectation 4. Responsibility 5. Employment 6. Approximation 7. Engagement
Withitness
The degree to which the teacher is aware of and responsive to student behavior; a heightened sense of attentiveness to relevant student behavior.
Overlapping
A teacher's ability to predict and respond to behavior problems without interrupting a classroom lesson or activity.
Principle of Least Intervention
Correcting misbehaviors by using the simplest or least invasive intervention that will work. Possible steps include: 1. Prevention 2. Using nonverbal cues 3. Verbal Reminders 3. Consequences
Home Contingency
A home-based reinforcement system in which teachers work out with parents an arrangement to give or remove students special privileges at home if they meet well-specified standards of behavior.
Rules
Articulated expectations regarding student behavior; general expectations or standards of behavior. (example: respect others)
Procedures
Communicated expectations for specific student behavior. (example: keep hands and objects to yourself as we walk down the hall to the library)
Group Contingency
A program in which rewards or punishments are given to a class or group as a whole for adhering to or violating rules or procedures.
Instructional Strategy
A way of instruction that meets the needs, goals, and objectives of the learners; a plan, approach, or technique used to teach learning objectives. Teacher-centered-associated with direct models of instruction in which teachers provide information and students follow with practice sessions (example: deductive lessons) Student-centered-associated with constructivist models of instruction in which students are more active and interactive in the learning process (example: inductive and discovery learning)
Fair Use Guidelines
Guidelines limiting the rights of copyright holders and allowing portions of copyrighted materials to be used for educational purposes; guidelines for portion, time, amount, and distribution of copyrighted materials for educational purposes.
Filtering Software
Software installed on computers to prevent unwanted or inappropriate viewing of Web sites or information accessed via the Internet.
Computer-Assisted Instruction
A self-learning technique using computer software; mastery of learning objectives involving interaction of the students with technological programmed instructional materials.
Software Piracy
Any unauthorized use of computer software. Piracy is determined by the type of software and license agreement. Freeware-public domain and free to use and copy Shareware-free for a trial period and then requires purchase and registration Commercial-requires purchase and registration for any use
Assistive Technology
Technology for students with disabilities that assists achievement of goals as specified in the student's Individualized Education Program (IEP).
Assessment
A measurement appraisal process that is ongoing, developmentally appropriate, and dynamic; the process of gathering evidence of learning.
Evaluation
A formal measurement and judgment of student performance or behavior.
Formative Assessment
Assessment data that show a student's progress or lack of progress toward curricular objectives during the process of instruction.
Summative Assessment
Assessment data collected after instruction to evaluate a student's mastery of the curriculum objectives and a teacher's effectiveness at instructional delivery.
Reliability
The consistency of test results over time. A reliable measure is one that yields similar results time after time when administered to the same type or level of students under the same conditions.
Validity
The truthfulness of the assessment information; a determination of how closely a score report measures what it purports to measure. (Does it measure the content?)
Norm-referenced Test
A test takers performance reported in comparison to other test takers in the same age or grade sample. Results are reported in standard scores, percentile ranks, t scores, or z scores.
Criterion-referenced Test
A test takers performance reported as mastery of learning criteria or standards. Passing requires answering a certain percentage correctly. The TAKS test is a criterion-referenced test.
Measurement-based Assessment
Formal or standardized assessments that report learning of constructs in numerical terms; assessment of learning reported in numbers.
Performance-based Assessment
An alternative assessment method based on a student's performance of a skill based on a real-life situation.
Authentic Assessment
Demonstrating learning or a specific skill by constructing a product or solving a problem that could be generated from a real-life situation.
Portfolio
An authentic assessment tool used to assess student progress; a systematic collection of student work documenting evidence of learning.
Percentile Rank
Standardized scores that compare an individual with other test takers and report that he/she scored as well as or better than a certain percentage of the sample group.
Site-Based Decision Making
School-based, collaborative management; a form of management in which the participants in the school community make decisions regarding governance.
Professional Development Appraisal System (PDAS)
The current appraisal system used by most of the schools in Texas concentrating on eight domains:
Professionalism
How teachers see themselves as members of the learning community and teaching profession as well as the images they project; behaving in an ethical manner when interacting with colleagues, students, and parents.
Mentor
An experienced teacher or administrator who provides guidance and customized assistance to promote retention and success of new teachers.
Professional Development
Activities that enhance teachers' professional knowledge, competence, and expertise.
Educators' Code of Ethics
A code that sets standards and expectations for ethical practice by Texas teachers; a document outlining ethical conduct toward colleagues, school officials, parents, and members of the community,
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
A federal law enacted in 1974 that sets the requirements to protect the privacy of parents or legal caregivers of students.
Vertical Teaming
All levels of district employees meet to learn about and plan for the entire district; gaining knowledge from all levels of the district to make appropriate decisions. (example: coordination between grade levels)
Horizontal Teaming
Members from the same level of the district meet to learn about and plan for the individual school or grade level. (example: collaboration within a grade level)
Parallel Play
Play in which children engage in the same activity side by side but with very little interaction or mutual influence.
Bloom's Taxonomy
An ordering of learning objectives or questions based on levels of thinking from simple learning tasks to more complex. The levels of the cognitive domain include: 1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension 3. Application 4. Analysis 5. Sythesis 6. Evaluation
Primacy Effect
The tendency for learners to remember items at the beginning of a list more easily than other items; remembering information at the beginning of a text or lesson.
Recency Effect
The tendency for learners to remember items at the end of a list more easily than other items; remembering information at the end of a text or lesson.
Metacognition
Knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn; thinking about thinking.
Prior Knowledge
Knowledge about or experience with a topic that enables connections for learning; a basis for comprehension or understanding.
Risk-Free Environment
A classroom in which all learners feel their opinions and contributions are valued.
Self-Concept
One's perception of oneself; how one feels about self.
Self-Efficacy
The belief that one is capable of accomplishing something.
Transfer
The ability to apply learning in one area to learning in another area; the effects learning in one area has on new learning or applications. Positive transfer- the ability to appropriately apply learning in one area to another area; learning in one area enhances learning in new contexts. Negative transfer- inappropriately applying learning in one area to learning in another area: learning in one area makes it more difficult or confusing to learn in another area.
Formal Operational
The fourth stage of cognitive development (11 years to adulthood) in which abstract and symbolic thought is possible. Problems can be solved through the use of experimentation and critical thinking.
Postconventional Level of Morality
Stages 5 and 6 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which students define their own values in terms of ethical principles. Ethical behavior is a decision of conscience according to self-chosen principles and laws can be changed for the good of society.
Pedagogy
The art, science, or profession of teaching
Blooms Taxonomy - Remembering
The student can recall facts and basic concepts
Blooms Taxonomy - Understand
The student can explain ideas or concepts
Bloom's Taxonomy - Apply
The student can use information in new situations
Blooms Taxonomy - Analyze
The student can draw connections among ideas
Bloom's Taxonomy - Evaluate
The student can justify a stand or discussion
Bloom's Taxonomy - Create
The student can produce original work
What is the difference between the old and new Bloom's Taxonomy?
In the original Bloom's taxonomy, the top of the pyramid was evaluation and underneath was synthesis. In the revised version of Bloom's taxonomy the top of the pyramid became creating and underneath became evaluating.
What did Piaget focus on?
Brain development - specifically assimilation and accomodaition
What is the order of Piaget's brain development theory?
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operation, formal operations
What did Erikson focus on?
The critical age for a person's social and emotional development
Trust vs. Mistrust (Stage 1)
When infants are wondering can I trust the world? Ex: Feeding and abandonment
Autonomy vs. Shame (Stage 2)
When toddlers are learning if it is okay to be themselves. Ex: potty training and clothing themselves
Initiative vs. Guilt (Stage 3)
When pre-schoolers are learning if it is okay for them to do, move, and act. Ex: exploring, using tools, or making art
Industry vs. Inferiority - (Stage 4)
When elementary students are learning if they can make it through the world of people and things. Ex: school and sports
Identity vs. Confusion - (Stage 5)
When adolescents are coming to know who they are and who they can be. Ex: social interaction and relationships
Intimacy vs. Isolation - (Stage 6)
When young adults are trying to understand if they can love. Ex: romantic relationships
Generativity vs. Stagnant - (Stage 7)
When middle adults are wondering if they can make their life count. Ex: work and parenthood
Integrity vs. Despair - (Stage 8)
When the elderly are pondering if it is okay to have been them. Ex: reflection of ones life
What are the three things that contribute to a highly functioning classroom?
1. well-designed instruction
2. positive relationships
3. clear procedures
How do SPED and LD students typically learn?
Visually
When do ELL students work best?
When their reading/writing content matches their culture
What are special populations?
Individuals with unique circumstances or characteristics that can interfere with academic achievement, social/emotional growth, or optimal development of their potential
T or F? Gifted and talented falls under the "special populations" category?
True
When must a person attend school?
- Children age 6+
-Children younger than 6 who were previously enrolled in first grade
-Children 6-18
When MAY a person attend school?
-Children who are 5 years old ON OR BEFORE Sept. 1st
-Individuals 21-25 to complete a HS diploma
At-Risk Student
A student who has a higher than normal probability of dropping out of school
Rigor
The level, complexity, depth, and alignment of material presented to students
Relevance
The curriculum connection to students' life experience that promote value in content learning
What impacts a student's ability to learn?
It is NOT poverty alone, there has to be a physiological difference created
ESL
English as a Second Language
ELL
English Language Learner
BE
Bilingual Education
LEP
Limited English Proficiency
TELPAS
Texas English Language Proficiency Assessment System
HLS
Home Language Survey
LPAC
Language Proficiency Assessment Committee
OLPT
Oral Language Proficiency Test
One-Way Bilingual Program
When there is ONE group learning bilingually
Two-Way Bilingual Program
This is when you have two groups learning each other's language as a second language
T or F Do identified LEP's have the right to a bilingual or ESL education?
True
How soon should a LPAC meet on an ELL after testing?
Within FOUR weeks
What are the four levels of ELL proficiency?
1. Beginning
2. Intermediate
3. Advanced
4. Advanced High
Beginning ELL
Little or no ability to understand spoken English in academic or social settings
Intermediate ELL
Ability to understand simple, high-frequency spoken English used in academic and social settings
Advanced ELL
Ability to understand with support grade-appropriate spoken English used in academic and social settings
Advanced High - ELL
Ability to understand with minimal support grade-appropriate spoken English used in academic and social settings
When was IDEA created?
1999
What is the pathway to the LEAST restrictive environment?
out of class support --> in-class support --> specialized school
FAPE
This stands for Free and Appropriate Education that benefits the child and shows steady progress at no cost
IEP
This stands for Individualized Education Plan and is a legal document that details individualized/personalized and special education services a child will receive and why
ARD
This stands for Admission, Review, and Dismissal committee that analyzes student data and determines educational services needed for each child
Accomodations
These are reasonable adjustments to teaching practices
Modifications
These are changes or adapts to the material to make it simpler
Gifted and Talented
A student who performs at or shows the potential for performing at an age exceptionally high-level of accomplishment when compared to other students of the same age, experience, or environment and who exhibit high performance capability in an intellectual, artistic, or creative and usually process leadership qualities. In addition, they excel in a specific academic field.
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, developed a theory of how cognition develops and changes over time. Piaget proposed that a child's intellect progresses through four stages: 1. Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) 2. Preoperational (2 to 7 years) 3. Concrete operational (7 to 11 years) 4. Formal operational (11 years to adulthood) Children learn through active interaction and manipulation of the environment. The stage the child is in determines how they see the world. Piaget believed all students pass through the stages in order and cannot skip any stage.
Schemes
Mental patterns that guide behavior; cognitive structures that help children process and organize information to make sense of the environment
Assimilation
Understanding new experiences in terms of existing schemes
Accommodation
Modifying existing schemes to fit new situations in the environment. When old ways of dealing with the environment don't work, a child modifies an existing scheme stimulated by new information or a new experience
Adaptation
The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment through assimilation or accommodation. According to Piaget, this is how learning occurs.
Equilibration
The process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences. According to Piaget, learning depends on this process so it is important for teachers to confront students with new experiences or data to advance their cognitive development.
Disequilibrium
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Disequilibrium
An imbalance between what a child understands and what the child encounters through new experiences.
Sensorimotor Stage
The earliest stage (birth to 2 years) of cognitive development during which infants learn about the environment by using their senses and motor skills. Children develop "object permanence" and progress from reflexive behavior to goal-directed behavior.
Object Permanence
The fact that objects are physically stable and exist even when the objects are not in the child's physical presence. This enables the child to start using symbols to represent things in their minds so they can think about them.
Preoperational Stage
The second stage (2 to 7 years) of cognitive development in which children learn to represent things in their mind. During this stage students develop the ability to use symbols to represent objects in the world. Thinking remains egocentric and centered.
Egocentric
Believing that everyone sees the world as you do.
Conservation
The concept that certain properties of an object remain the same regardless of changes in other properties.
Centration
Paying attention to only one aspect of an object or situation; what is commonly called tunnel vision.
Reversibility
The ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse thinking to return to the starting point.
Class Inclusion
The ability to think simultaneously about a whole class of objects and about relationships among subordinate classes; a framework for thinking.
Concrete Operational Stage
The third stage (7 to 11 years) of cognitive development in which children develop the capacity for logical reasoning and understanding of conservation but can use the skills only in dealing with familiar situations. New abilities include operations that are reversible. Thinking is decentered, allowing them to understand that others may have different perceptions, and problem solving is less restricted by egocentrism. Abstract thinking is not possible.
Inferred Reality
The ability to understand stimuli in the context of relevant information. Preschoolers see what they see with little ability to infer the meaning behind what they see. Students in the concrete operational stage respond to inferred reality and see things in the context of other meanings.
Seriation
Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, volume, etc. Seriation involves arranging things in a logical progression such as from smallest to largest or shortest or tallest.
Transivity
A skill learned during the concrete operational stage in which children can mentally arrange and compare objects. Transitivity is the ability to infer a relationship between two objects on the basis of knowledge of their respective relationships with a third object. (If a>b and b>c, then a>c)
Inversion
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. (+X is reversed by -X)
Reciprocity
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. (MM)
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, developed a theory of cognitive development based on two key ideas. He proposed children understand the world based on social interactions within their culture and the sign systems that represent ideas. These systems include symbols used to think, solve problems, and communicate. Vygotsky's theory highlights the socio-cultural nature of learning.
Self-regulation
According to Vygotsky's theory, self-regulation is the ability to think and solve problems without the help of others. Learning is a social process and learning occurs when self-regulation is achieved.
Sign Systems
Symbols that cultures create to help people think, solve problems, and communicate.
Private Speech
Inner speech or children's self-talk that guides thinking and actions; an important consideration in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development.
Zone of Proximal Development
Level of development immediately above a student's present level. The tasks within the zone of proximal development require assistance from the teacher or a more knowledgeable other. Students cannot perform tasks alone within the zone of proximal development. Activities designed within this zone are guided activities.
Scaffolding
Support for learning and problem solving that include clues, reminders, examples, or encouragement. Scaffolding allows a student to make a learning connection and become independent as a learner.
Cooperative Learning
Strategies in which students work together to help one another learn by sharing perspectives and providing models of slightly advanced thinking.
Developmentally Appropriate Education
Instruction intentionally adapted to the current developmental level of students rather than planned according their chronological age or grade level.
Psychosocial Theory
A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development.
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Trained by Freud as a psychoanalyst, Erikson proposed people pass through eight psychosocial stages of development. A psychosocial crisis is resolved at each stage.
Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
Part of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development addresses children's moral reasoning. Piaget proposed that as children's thinking becomes more advanced their understanding of moral problems deepens. 1. Heteronomous Morality (based on rules and consequences) 2. Autonomous Morality (based on mutual respect and recognition)
Heteronomous Morality
According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the younger stage when children think rules are unchangeable and that breaking rules leads to punishment.
Autonomous Morality
According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the older stage when children understand that rules are created and that punishments are not automatic.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning
Lawrence Kohlberg proposed students pass through three levels and six stages of moral reasoning: I. Preconventional Level Stage 1 Punishment and Obedience Orientation Stage 2 Instrumental Realist Orientation II. Conventional Level Stage 3 "Good boy-Good girl" Orientation Stage 4 "Law and Order" Orientation III. Postconventional Level Stage 5 Social Contract Orientation Stage 6 Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
Preconventional Level of Morality
Stages 1 and 2 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which children make moral decisions in their own interests to avoid punishments. Safety is the main consideration.
Conventional Level of Morality
Stages 3 and 4 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning during which children make moral decisions in consideration of others. Fairness is the main consideration.
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
Social class defined in terms of income, occupation, education, possessions, and prestige in society. A measure of prestige within a social group.
Ethnicity
A culture, history, and sense of identity shared by a group of people; a way of life. A shared cultural heritage and traditions often based on race, religion, language, or national identity.
Bilingual Education
Instructional programs for students who speak little or no English in which instruction is provided in the native language as well as English. The four types of programs include: language immersion; transitional; paired bilingual; and two-way bilingual.
Limited English Proficient (LEP)
A student who possesses limited mastery of the English language affecting instruction and learning.
English as a Second Language (ESL)
Instruction program for students who are not native speakers of English in which all instruction is provided in English; an English immersion instructional program in which all subjects are taught in English.
Multicultural Education
An approach to education that includes non-European perspectives in the curriculum; an educational approach designed to improve outcomes for all students of different cultural backgrounds and genders.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
A special education law that requires schools to educate students with disabilities in least restrictive environments to the greatest extent of their abilities using plans tailored to the individual needs of the students.
Individualized Education Program (IEP)
A customized plan for a student with a disability developed by an ARD committee that guides the instruction and services the student receives.
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
Provision in IDEA that requires students with disabilities to be educated with nondisabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate.
Admission Review and Dismissal (ARD)
A committee composed of the parent, administrator, assessment personnel, regular education teacher, special education teacher, and other pertinent representatives who meet on a regular basis to make decisions in regard to admission, services, and dismissal from special education.
Inclusion
An instructional arrangement whereby students with disabilities receive instruction and services in a general education setting with regular education peers.
Gifted and Talented (GT)
Instructional programs designed for students with exceptional intellectual ability, creativity, or talent; enrichment programs.
Learning Styles
A theory of individual learner preferences proposed by Dunn & Dunn addressing environmental factors.
Multiple Intelligences
An intelligence theory developed by Howard Gardner that changes the question from "How smart are you?" to "How are you smart?" The eight intelligences include: 1. interpersonal 2. intrapersonal 3. musical; linguistic 4. spatial 5. logical mathematical 6. bodily-kinesthetic 7. linguistic 8. naturalist
Direct Instruction
A teacher-directed approach to instruction; an instructional approach in which the teacher transmits information through goal-oriented, structured lessons. The seven parts to a direct instruction lesson include: 1. State learning objectives 2. Review prerequisites 3. Present new material 4. Conduct learning probes 5. Provide independent practice 6. Assessment and feedback 7. Review and provide distributed practice
Mental Set
Students' attitudes of readiness to begin a lesson that involves motivation and activation of prior knowledge on the topic of instruction; focus.
Wait Time
The length of time a teacher waits for a student to answer a question before helping the student answer or asking another student. Research indicates teachers who wait approximately 3 seconds after asking a question get better results that teachers who wait less (Tobin, 1986).
Calling Order
The order in which students are called on by the teacher to answer questions during the course of a classroom activity or lesson. Most teachers expand the definition of calling order to include the decision of whether to ask a question and then call on a student or call on student and then phrase the question.
Choral Response
Responses to questions made by an entire group of student in unison designed to provide the highest level of support with immediate feedback.
Time-on-Task
The portion of allocated time students are actively engaged in learning; engaged learning time. Allocated time refers to the opportunity for the entire class to engage in learning while engaged time differs for each student.
Objective
The focus of a lesson; what students are expected to learn.
Overt/Covert Behavior
Overt behavior is observable and covert behavior is cognitive and involves thinking. Teachers must generate overt behavior to monitor students' progress toward learning goals.
Pacing
The amount of content covered; rate at which content is taught with understanding.
Smoothness
The teacher's ability to maintain a continued focus on a meaningful sequence of instruction (Kounin, 1970); transitions between instructional sequences that maintain a focus on learning.
Momentum
The teacher's ability to avoid interruptions or slowing down instruction (Kounin, 1970); keeping an appropriate pace for instruction.
Reinforcement
The use of consequences to strengthen behavior. Positive-pleasurable consequence given to strengthen behavior Negative-release from an unpleasant situation given to strengthen behavior
Shaping
The teaching of a new skill or behavior by using reinforcement for incremental steps toward the desired goal.
Massed Practice
A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time.
Distributed Practice
A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time or intermittently.
Retention
The level to which students remembers or retains relevant learning information. Factors affecting retention include emotions, degree of original learning, practice, etc.
Top-Down Processing
A constructivist approach in which students begin with complex problems to solve, and then work out or discover (with teacher guidance) the basic skills and generalizations.
Motivation
An internal process that activates, guides, and maintains behavior over time. Intrinsic incentive-internal or natural desire or interest. Extrinsic incentive-an environmental reward or consequence affecting attitude.
Classical Conditioning
The process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to create a conditioned response. (example: raise your arm in the air and the group gets quiet or ring a bell and the students change groups)
Operant Conditioning
The use of positive or negative consequences to control the occurrence of behavior. (example: awarding points for reading)
Flexible Grouping
The formation of groups for a short period of time to support instruction; using a variety of grouping formats to support learning. Formats include large, small, partner, and one-on-one. Heterogeneous-group members differ in skills, needs, abilities, interests, learning styles, etc. Homogeneous-group member have similar skills, abilities, interests, learning styles, etc.
Classroom Climate
The way a classroom feels to the participants.
Conflict Contaminants
Conditions in which negative conflict grows. Some conflict contaminants include negativism, unrealistic expectations, poor communication, personal stressors, the savior syndrome, jumping to conclusions, lack of support and trust, and preference protection (Nath, p.155)
Conflict Resolution
Techniques employed to reduce or eliminate conflict between classroom participants. Techniques include using conciliatory gestures, avoidance, altering group structure, role clarification, communication, direct order, compromise, etc.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
An hierarchy of requirements for the well-being of a student including deficiency and growth needs. The hierarchy includes: 1. Survival 2. Safety 3. Belonging 4. Self-Esteem 5. Intellectual Achievement 6. Aesthetic Appreciation 7. Self-Actualization
Cambourne's Conditions for Learning
Characteristics of the environment that support learning. 1. Immersion 2. Demonstration 3. Expectation 4. Responsibility 5. Employment 6. Approximation 7. Engagement
Withitness
The degree to which the teacher is aware of and responsive to student behavior; a heightened sense of attentiveness to relevant student behavior.
Overlapping
A teacher's ability to predict and respond to behavior problems without interrupting a classroom lesson or activity.
Principle of Least Intervention
Correcting misbehaviors by using the simplest or least invasive intervention that will work. Possible steps include: 1. Prevention 2. Using nonverbal cues 3. Verbal Reminders 3. Consequences
Home Contingency
A home-based reinforcement system in which teachers work out with parents an arrangement to give or remove students special privileges at home if they meet well-specified standards of behavior.
Rules
Articulated expectations regarding student behavior; general expectations or standards of behavior. (example: respect others)
Procedures
Communicated expectations for specific student behavior. (example: keep hands and objects to yourself as we walk down the hall to the library)
Group Contingency
A program in which rewards or punishments are given to a class or group as a whole for adhering to or violating rules or procedures.
Instructional Strategy
A way of instruction that meets the needs, goals, and objectives of the learners; a plan, approach, or technique used to teach learning objectives. Teacher-centered-associated with direct models of instruction in which teachers provide information and students follow with practice sessions (example: deductive lessons) Student-centered-associated with constructivist models of instruction in which students are more active and interactive in the learning process (example: inductive and discovery learning)
Fair Use Guidelines
Guidelines limiting the rights of copyright holders and allowing portions of copyrighted materials to be used for educational purposes; guidelines for portion, time, amount, and distribution of copyrighted materials for educational purposes.
Filtering Software
Software installed on computers to prevent unwanted or inappropriate viewing of Web sites or information accessed via the Internet.
Computer-Assisted Instruction
A self-learning technique using computer software; mastery of learning objectives involving interaction of the students with technological programmed instructional materials.
Software Piracy
Any unauthorized use of computer software. Piracy is determined by the type of software and license agreement. Freeware-public domain and free to use and copy Shareware-free for a trial period and then requires purchase and registration Commercial-requires purchase and registration for any use
Assistive Technology
Technology for students with disabilities that assists achievement of goals as specified in the student's Individualized Education Program (IEP).
Assessment
A measurement appraisal process that is ongoing, developmentally appropriate, and dynamic; the process of gathering evidence of learning.
Evaluation
A formal measurement and judgment of student performance or behavior.
Formative Assessment
Assessment data that show a student's progress or lack of progress toward curricular objectives during the process of instruction.
Summative Assessment
Assessment data collected after instruction to evaluate a student's mastery of the curriculum objectives and a teacher's effectiveness at instructional delivery.
Reliability
The consistency of test results over time. A reliable measure is one that yields similar results time after time when administered to the same type or level of students under the same conditions.
Validity
The truthfulness of the assessment information; a determination of how closely a score report measures what it purports to measure. (Does it measure the content?)
Norm-referenced Test
A test takers performance reported in comparison to other test takers in the same age or grade sample. Results are reported in standard scores, percentile ranks, t scores, or z scores.
Criterion-referenced Test
A test takers performance reported as mastery of learning criteria or standards. Passing requires answering a certain percentage correctly. The TAKS test is a criterion-referenced test.
Measurement-based Assessment
Formal or standardized assessments that report learning of constructs in numerical terms; assessment of learning reported in numbers.
Performance-based Assessment
An alternative assessment method based on a student's performance of a skill based on a real-life situation.
Authentic Assessment
Demonstrating learning or a specific skill by constructing a product or solving a problem that could be generated from a real-life situation.
Portfolio
An authentic assessment tool used to assess student progress; a systematic collection of student work documenting evidence of learning.
Percentile Rank
Standardized scores that compare an individual with other test takers and report that he/she scored as well as or better than a certain percentage of the sample group.
Site-Based Decision Making
School-based, collaborative management; a form of management in which the participants in the school community make decisions regarding governance.
Professional Development Appraisal System (PDAS)
The current appraisal system used by most of the schools in Texas concentrating on eight domains:
Professionalism
How teachers see themselves as members of the learning community and teaching profession as well as the images they project; behaving in an ethical manner when interacting with colleagues, students, and parents.
Mentor
An experienced teacher or administrator who provides guidance and customized assistance to promote retention and success of new teachers.
Professional Development
Activities that enhance teachers' professional knowledge, competence, and expertise.
Educators' Code of Ethics
A code that sets standards and expectations for ethical practice by Texas teachers; a document outlining ethical conduct toward colleagues, school officials, parents, and members of the community,
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
A federal law enacted in 1974 that sets the requirements to protect the privacy of parents or legal caregivers of students.
Vertical Teaming
All levels of district employees meet to learn about and plan for the entire district; gaining knowledge from all levels of the district to make appropriate decisions. (example: coordination between grade levels)
Horizontal Teaming
Members from the same level of the district meet to learn about and plan for the individual school or grade level. (example: collaboration within a grade level)
Parallel Play
Play in which children engage in the same activity side by side but with very little interaction or mutual influence.
Bloom's Taxonomy
An ordering of learning objectives or questions based on levels of thinking from simple learning tasks to more complex. The levels of the cognitive domain include: 1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension 3. Application 4. Analysis 5. Sythesis 6. Evaluation
Primacy Effect
The tendency for learners to remember items at the beginning of a list more easily than other items; remembering information at the beginning of a text or lesson.
Recency Effect
The tendency for learners to remember items at the end of a list more easily than other items; remembering information at the end of a text or lesson.
Metacognition
Knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn; thinking about thinking.
Prior Knowledge
Knowledge about or experience with a topic that enables connections for learning; a basis for comprehension or understanding.
Risk-Free Environment
A classroom in which all learners feel their opinions and contributions are valued.
Self-Concept
One's perception of oneself; how one feels about self.
Self-Efficacy
The belief that one is capable of accomplishing something.
Transfer
The ability to apply learning in one area to learning in another area; the effects learning in one area has on new learning or applications. Positive transfer- the ability to appropriately apply learning in one area to another area; learning in one area enhances learning in new contexts. Negative transfer- inappropriately applying learning in one area to learning in another area: learning in one area makes it more difficult or confusing to learn in another area.
Formal Operational
The fourth stage of cognitive development (11 years to adulthood) in which abstract and symbolic thought is possible. Problems can be solved through the use of experimentation and critical thinking.
Postconventional Level of Morality
Stages 5 and 6 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which students define their own values in terms of ethical principles. Ethical behavior is a decision of conscience according to self-chosen principles and laws can be changed for the good of society.
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, developed a theory of how cognition develops and changes over time. Piaget proposed that a child's intellect progresses through four stages: 1. Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) 2. Preoperational (2 to 7 years) 3. Concrete operational (7 to 11 years) 4. Formal operational (11 years to adulthood) Children learn through active interaction and manipulation of the environment. The stage the child is in determines how they see the world. Piaget believed all students pass through the stages in order and cannot skip any stage.
Schemes
Mental patterns that guide behavior; cognitive structures that help children process and organize information to make sense of the environment
Assimilation
Understanding new experiences in terms of existing schemes
Accommodation
Modifying existing schemes to fit new situations in the environment. When old ways of dealing with the environment don't work, a child modifies an existing scheme stimulated by new information or a new experience
Adaptation
The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment through assimilation or accommodation. According to Piaget, this is how learning occurs.
Equilibration
The process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences. According to Piaget, learning depends on this process so it is important for teachers to confront students with new experiences or data to advance their cognitive development.
Disequilibrium
7 of 124
Disequilibrium
An imbalance between what a child understands and what the child encounters through new experiences.
Sensorimotor Stage
The earliest stage (birth to 2 years) of cognitive development during which infants learn about the environment by using their senses and motor skills. Children develop "object permanence" and progress from reflexive behavior to goal-directed behavior.
Object Permanence
The fact that objects are physically stable and exist even when the objects are not in the child's physical presence. This enables the child to start using symbols to represent things in their minds so they can think about them.
Preoperational Stage
The second stage (2 to 7 years) of cognitive development in which children learn to represent things in their mind. During this stage students develop the ability to use symbols to represent objects in the world. Thinking remains egocentric and centered.
Egocentric
Believing that everyone sees the world as you do.
Conservation
The concept that certain properties of an object remain the same regardless of changes in other properties.
Centration
Paying attention to only one aspect of an object or situation; what is commonly called tunnel vision.
Reversibility
The ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse thinking to return to the starting point.
Class Inclusion
The ability to think simultaneously about a whole class of objects and about relationships among subordinate classes; a framework for thinking.
Concrete Operational Stage
The third stage (7 to 11 years) of cognitive development in which children develop the capacity for logical reasoning and understanding of conservation but can use the skills only in dealing with familiar situations. New abilities include operations that are reversible. Thinking is decentered, allowing them to understand that others may have different perceptions, and problem solving is less restricted by egocentrism. Abstract thinking is not possible.
Inferred Reality
The ability to understand stimuli in the context of relevant information. Preschoolers see what they see with little ability to infer the meaning behind what they see. Students in the concrete operational stage respond to inferred reality and see things in the context of other meanings.
Seriation
Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, volume, etc. Seriation involves arranging things in a logical progression such as from smallest to largest or shortest or tallest.
Transivity
A skill learned during the concrete operational stage in which children can mentally arrange and compare objects. Transitivity is the ability to infer a relationship between two objects on the basis of knowledge of their respective relationships with a third object. (If a>b and b>c, then a>c)
Inversion
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. (+X is reversed by -X)
Reciprocity
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. (MM)
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, developed a theory of cognitive development based on two key ideas. He proposed children understand the world based on social interactions within their culture and the sign systems that represent ideas. These systems include symbols used to think, solve problems, and communicate. Vygotsky's theory highlights the socio-cultural nature of learning.
Self-regulation
According to Vygotsky's theory, self-regulation is the ability to think and solve problems without the help of others. Learning is a social process and learning occurs when self-regulation is achieved.
Sign Systems
Symbols that cultures create to help people think, solve problems, and communicate.
Private Speech
Inner speech or children's self-talk that guides thinking and actions; an important consideration in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development.
Zone of Proximal Development
Level of development immediately above a student's present level. The tasks within the zone of proximal development require assistance from the teacher or a more knowledgeable other. Students cannot perform tasks alone within the zone of proximal development. Activities designed within this zone are guided activities.
Scaffolding
Support for learning and problem solving that include clues, reminders, examples, or encouragement. Scaffolding allows a student to make a learning connection and become independent as a learner.
Cooperative Learning
Strategies in which students work together to help one another learn by sharing perspectives and providing models of slightly advanced thinking.
Developmentally Appropriate Education
Instruction intentionally adapted to the current developmental level of students rather than planned according their chronological age or grade level.
Psychosocial Theory
A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development.
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Trained by Freud as a psychoanalyst, Erikson proposed people pass through eight psychosocial stages of development. A psychosocial crisis is resolved at each stage.
Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
Part of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development addresses children's moral reasoning. Piaget proposed that as children's thinking becomes more advanced their understanding of moral problems deepens. 1. Heteronomous Morality (based on rules and consequences) 2. Autonomous Morality (based on mutual respect and recognition)
Heteronomous Morality
According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the younger stage when children think rules are unchangeable and that breaking rules leads to punishment.
Autonomous Morality
According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the older stage when children understand that rules are created and that punishments are not automatic.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning
Lawrence Kohlberg proposed students pass through three levels and six stages of moral reasoning: I. Preconventional Level Stage 1 Punishment and Obedience Orientation Stage 2 Instrumental Realist Orientation II. Conventional Level Stage 3 "Good boy-Good girl" Orientation Stage 4 "Law and Order" Orientation III. Postconventional Level Stage 5 Social Contract Orientation Stage 6 Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
Preconventional Level of Morality
Stages 1 and 2 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which children make moral decisions in their own interests to avoid punishments. Safety is the main consideration.
Conventional Level of Morality
Stages 3 and 4 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning during which children make moral decisions in consideration of others. Fairness is the main consideration.
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
Social class defined in terms of income, occupation, education, possessions, and prestige in society. A measure of prestige within a social group.
Ethnicity
A culture, history, and sense of identity shared by a group of people; a way of life. A shared cultural heritage and traditions often based on race, religion, language, or national identity.
Bilingual Education
Instructional programs for students who speak little or no English in which instruction is provided in the native language as well as English. The four types of programs include: language immersion; transitional; paired bilingual; and two-way bilingual.
Limited English Proficient (LEP)
A student who possesses limited mastery of the English language affecting instruction and learning.
English as a Second Language (ESL)
Instruction program for students who are not native speakers of English in which all instruction is provided in English; an English immersion instructional program in which all subjects are taught in English.
Multicultural Education
An approach to education that includes non-European perspectives in the curriculum; an educational approach designed to improve outcomes for all students of different cultural backgrounds and genders.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
A special education law that requires schools to educate students with disabilities in least restrictive environments to the greatest extent of their abilities using plans tailored to the individual needs of the students.
Individualized Education Program (IEP)
A customized plan for a student with a disability developed by an ARD committee that guides the instruction and services the student receives.
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
Provision in IDEA that requires students with disabilities to be educated with nondisabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate.
Admission Review and Dismissal (ARD)
A committee composed of the parent, administrator, assessment personnel, regular education teacher, special education teacher, and other pertinent representatives who meet on a regular basis to make decisions in regard to admission, services, and dismissal from special education.
Inclusion
An instructional arrangement whereby students with disabilities receive instruction and services in a general education setting with regular education peers.
Gifted and Talented (GT)
Instructional programs designed for students with exceptional intellectual ability, creativity, or talent; enrichment programs.
Learning Styles
A theory of individual learner preferences proposed by Dunn & Dunn addressing environmental factors.
Multiple Intelligences
An intelligence theory developed by Howard Gardner that changes the question from "How smart are you?" to "How are you smart?" The eight intelligences include: 1. interpersonal 2. intrapersonal 3. musical; linguistic 4. spatial 5. logical mathematical 6. bodily-kinesthetic 7. linguistic 8. naturalist
Direct Instruction
A teacher-directed approach to instruction; an instructional approach in which the teacher transmits information through goal-oriented, structured lessons. The seven parts to a direct instruction lesson include: 1. State learning objectives 2. Review prerequisites 3. Present new material 4. Conduct learning probes 5. Provide independent practice 6. Assessment and feedback 7. Review and provide distributed practice
Mental Set
Students' attitudes of readiness to begin a lesson that involves motivation and activation of prior knowledge on the topic of instruction; focus.
Wait Time
The length of time a teacher waits for a student to answer a question before helping the student answer or asking another student. Research indicates teachers who wait approximately 3 seconds after asking a question get better results that teachers who wait less (Tobin, 1986).
Calling Order
The order in which students are called on by the teacher to answer questions during the course of a classroom activity or lesson. Most teachers expand the definition of calling order to include the decision of whether to ask a question and then call on a student or call on student and then phrase the question.
Choral Response
Responses to questions made by an entire group of student in unison designed to provide the highest level of support with immediate feedback.
Time-on-Task
The portion of allocated time students are actively engaged in learning; engaged learning time. Allocated time refers to the opportunity for the entire class to engage in learning while engaged time differs for each student.
Objective
The focus of a lesson; what students are expected to learn.
Overt/Covert Behavior
Overt behavior is observable and covert behavior is cognitive and involves thinking. Teachers must generate overt behavior to monitor students' progress toward learning goals.
Pacing
The amount of content covered; rate at which content is taught with understanding.
Smoothness
The teacher's ability to maintain a continued focus on a meaningful sequence of instruction (Kounin, 1970); transitions between instructional sequences that maintain a focus on learning.
Momentum
The teacher's ability to avoid interruptions or slowing down instruction (Kounin, 1970); keeping an appropriate pace for instruction.
Reinforcement
The use of consequences to strengthen behavior. Positive-pleasurable consequence given to strengthen behavior Negative-release from an unpleasant situation given to strengthen behavior
Shaping
The teaching of a new skill or behavior by using reinforcement for incremental steps toward the desired goal.
Massed Practice
A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time.
Distributed Practice
A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time or intermittently.
Retention
The level to which students remembers or retains relevant learning information. Factors affecting retention include emotions, degree of original learning, practice, etc.
Top-Down Processing
A constructivist approach in which students begin with complex problems to solve, and then work out or discover (with teacher guidance) the basic skills and generalizations.
Motivation
An internal process that activates, guides, and maintains behavior over time. Intrinsic incentive-internal or natural desire or interest. Extrinsic incentive-an environmental reward or consequence affecting attitude.
Classical Conditioning
The process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to create a conditioned response. (example: raise your arm in the air and the group gets quiet or ring a bell and the students change groups)
Operant Conditioning
The use of positive or negative consequences to control the occurrence of behavior. (example: awarding points for reading)
Flexible Grouping
The formation of groups for a short period of time to support instruction; using a variety of grouping formats to support learning. Formats include large, small, partner, and one-on-one. Heterogeneous-group members differ in skills, needs, abilities, interests, learning styles, etc. Homogeneous-group member have similar skills, abilities, interests, learning styles, etc.
Classroom Climate
The way a classroom feels to the participants.
Conflict Contaminants
Conditions in which negative conflict grows. Some conflict contaminants include negativism, unrealistic expectations, poor communication, personal stressors, the savior syndrome, jumping to conclusions, lack of support and trust, and preference protection (Nath, p.155)
Conflict Resolution
Techniques employed to reduce or eliminate conflict between classroom participants. Techniques include using conciliatory gestures, avoidance, altering group structure, role clarification, communication, direct order, compromise, etc.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
An hierarchy of requirements for the well-being of a student including deficiency and growth needs. The hierarchy includes: 1. Survival 2. Safety 3. Belonging 4. Self-Esteem 5. Intellectual Achievement 6. Aesthetic Appreciation 7. Self-Actualization
Cambourne's Conditions for Learning
Characteristics of the environment that support learning. 1. Immersion 2. Demonstration 3. Expectation 4. Responsibility 5. Employment 6. Approximation 7. Engagement
Withitness
The degree to which the teacher is aware of and responsive to student behavior; a heightened sense of attentiveness to relevant student behavior.
Overlapping
A teacher's ability to predict and respond to behavior problems without interrupting a classroom lesson or activity.
Principle of Least Intervention
Correcting misbehaviors by using the simplest or least invasive intervention that will work. Possible steps include: 1. Prevention 2. Using nonverbal cues 3. Verbal Reminders 3. Consequences
Home Contingency
A home-based reinforcement system in which teachers work out with parents an arrangement to give or remove students special privileges at home if they meet well-specified standards of behavior.
Rules
Articulated expectations regarding student behavior; general expectations or standards of behavior. (example: respect others)
Procedures
Communicated expectations for specific student behavior. (example: keep hands and objects to yourself as we walk down the hall to the library)
Group Contingency
A program in which rewards or punishments are given to a class or group as a whole for adhering to or violating rules or procedures.
Instructional Strategy
A way of instruction that meets the needs, goals, and objectives of the learners; a plan, approach, or technique used to teach learning objectives. Teacher-centered-associated with direct models of instruction in which teachers provide information and students follow with practice sessions (example: deductive lessons) Student-centered-associated with constructivist models of instruction in which students are more active and interactive in the learning process (example: inductive and discovery learning)
Fair Use Guidelines
Guidelines limiting the rights of copyright holders and allowing portions of copyrighted materials to be used for educational purposes; guidelines for portion, time, amount, and distribution of copyrighted materials for educational purposes.
Filtering Software
Software installed on computers to prevent unwanted or inappropriate viewing of Web sites or information accessed via the Internet.
Computer-Assisted Instruction
A self-learning technique using computer software; mastery of learning objectives involving interaction of the students with technological programmed instructional materials.
Software Piracy
Any unauthorized use of computer software. Piracy is determined by the type of software and license agreement. Freeware-public domain and free to use and copy Shareware-free for a trial period and then requires purchase and registration Commercial-requires purchase and registration for any use
Assistive Technology
Technology for students with disabilities that assists achievement of goals as specified in the student's Individualized Education Program (IEP).
Assessment
A measurement appraisal process that is ongoing, developmentally appropriate, and dynamic; the process of gathering evidence of learning.
Evaluation
A formal measurement and judgment of student performance or behavior.
Formative Assessment
Assessment data that show a student's progress or lack of progress toward curricular objectives during the process of instruction.
Summative Assessment
Assessment data collected after instruction to evaluate a student's mastery of the curriculum objectives and a teacher's effectiveness at instructional delivery.
Reliability
The consistency of test results over time. A reliable measure is one that yields similar results time after time when administered to the same type or level of students under the same conditions.
Validity
The truthfulness of the assessment information; a determination of how closely a score report measures what it purports to measure. (Does it measure the content?)
Norm-referenced Test
A test takers performance reported in comparison to other test takers in the same age or grade sample. Results are reported in standard scores, percentile ranks, t scores, or z scores.
Criterion-referenced Test
A test takers performance reported as mastery of learning criteria or standards. Passing requires answering a certain percentage correctly. The TAKS test is a criterion-referenced test.
Measurement-based Assessment
Formal or standardized assessments that report learning of constructs in numerical terms; assessment of learning reported in numbers.
Performance-based Assessment
An alternative assessment method based on a student's performance of a skill based on a real-life situation.
Authentic Assessment
Demonstrating learning or a specific skill by constructing a product or solving a problem that could be generated from a real-life situation.
Portfolio
An authentic assessment tool used to assess student progress; a systematic collection of student work documenting evidence of learning.
Percentile Rank
Standardized scores that compare an individual with other test takers and report that he/she scored as well as or better than a certain percentage of the sample group.
Site-Based Decision Making
School-based, collaborative management; a form of management in which the participants in the school community make decisions regarding governance.
Professional Development Appraisal System (PDAS)
The current appraisal system used by most of the schools in Texas concentrating on eight domains:
Professionalism
How teachers see themselves as members of the learning community and teaching profession as well as the images they project; behaving in an ethical manner when interacting with colleagues, students, and parents.
Mentor
An experienced teacher or administrator who provides guidance and customized assistance to promote retention and success of new teachers.
Professional Development
Activities that enhance teachers' professional knowledge, competence, and expertise.
Educators' Code of Ethics
A code that sets standards and expectations for ethical practice by Texas teachers; a document outlining ethical conduct toward colleagues, school officials, parents, and members of the community,
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
A federal law enacted in 1974 that sets the requirements to protect the privacy of parents or legal caregivers of students.
Vertical Teaming
All levels of district employees meet to learn about and plan for the entire district; gaining knowledge from all levels of the district to make appropriate decisions. (example: coordination between grade levels)
Horizontal Teaming
Members from the same level of the district meet to learn about and plan for the individual school or grade level. (example: collaboration within a grade level)
Parallel Play
Play in which children engage in the same activity side by side but with very little interaction or mutual influence.
Bloom's Taxonomy
An ordering of learning objectives or questions based on levels of thinking from simple learning tasks to more complex. The levels of the cognitive domain include: 1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension 3. Application 4. Analysis 5. Sythesis 6. Evaluation
Primacy Effect
The tendency for learners to remember items at the beginning of a list more easily than other items; remembering information at the beginning of a text or lesson.
Recency Effect
The tendency for learners to remember items at the end of a list more easily than other items; remembering information at the end of a text or lesson.
Metacognition
Knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn; thinking about thinking.
Prior Knowledge
Knowledge about or experience with a topic that enables connections for learning; a basis for comprehension or understanding.
Risk-Free Environment
A classroom in which all learners feel their opinions and contributions are valued.
Self-Concept
One's perception of oneself; how one feels about self.
Self-Efficacy
The belief that one is capable of accomplishing something.
Transfer
The ability to apply learning in one area to learning in another area; the effects learning in one area has on new learning or applications. Positive transfer- the ability to appropriately apply learning in one area to another area; learning in one area enhances learning in new contexts. Negative transfer- inappropriately applying learning in one area to learning in another area: learning in one area makes it more difficult or confusing to learn in another area.
Formal Operational
The fourth stage of cognitive development (11 years to adulthood) in which abstract and symbolic thought is possible. Problems can be solved through the use of experimentation and critical thinking.
Postconventional Level of Morality
Stages 5 and 6 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which students define their own values in terms of ethical principles. Ethical behavior is a decision of conscience according to self-chosen principles and laws can be changed for the good of society.
Domain 1; Competency 1
The teacher understands human developmental processes and applies this knowledge to plan instruction and ongoing assessment that motivate students and are responsive to their developmental characteristics and needs.
Dimensions of Human Development
Physical, Emotional, Cognitive, Social
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Concept/Summary
When a need is met, the need goes away. Unmet needs remain. As needs are met people move to higher levels of consciousness
Equilibrium
...
Disequilibrium
...
Discovery Learning
...
Preoperational Stage of Development
...
Concrete Stage of Development
...
Formal Operational Stage of Development
...
Private Speech
...
Scaffolding
...
Assisted Learning
...
Zone of Proximal Development
...
Identity States
...
Moral Development
...
3 Forces in Modern Psychology (Theorist Examples of each)
1) Freudian Psychoanalysis; Erik Erickson
2) Behaviorism; Skinner
3) Humanistic Psychology; Abraham Maslow
Freudian Psychoanalysis (Def and theorist)
Focused on the mind; Erik Erickson
Behaviorism (Def and theorist)
Focused on observable behavior; Skinner
Humanistic Phychology
human being is more complex, a holistic approach; Abraham Maslow
Abraham Maslow
humanistic psychologist who suggested what people need determines the level at which they function
Jean Piaget
...
Lev Vygotsky
...
Erik Erikson
...
James Marcia
...
Lawrence Kohlberg
...
Carol Gilligan
...
Competency 1 Directs teachers to be attentive to:
Changes in students as they grow physically, emotionally, cognitively, socially
Teachers must be responsive to students
environment, personality, emotional needs, reasoning skills, and adjust accordingly
Deficiency Needs (Maslow)
energize or move people to meet them when unfulfilled; can address growth need after these are met
Growth Needs (Maslow)
expand ans increase as people have positive experiences with them; can not address if deficiency needs are not met
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Lowest to highest)
1D- Physiological Needs
2D- Safety Needs
3D- Social Needs
4G- Esteem Needs
5G- Self Actualization
Mean
an average score
Median
the middle number when numbers are lined up greatest to least
Mode
Most frequently occurring number
Authentic Assessment
demonstrating a specific skill by constructing a product or solving a problem that could be applied to a real life situation
Real life=authentic
Portfolio
Example of authentic assessment
Used to assess student progress; consists of a collection of a student's work chosen for a specific purpose.
Student Self-Assessment
a process in which students reflect on their achievement and progress; student interviews and portfolios are often used for self-assessment
Rubric
an outline or statement that tells students exactly how much each part of an assignment or test will be worth
Standardized Test
a formal assessment that tries to make all of the test-taking conditions the same for all test takers
Norm Referenced Test
a test that reports student performance in relationship to a large number of other test takers of the same age or in the same grade; results are reported as standard scores, percentile ranks, or t- or z- scores
Standard score
a statistical score based on the theoretical normal curve with a mean and standard; used to report standardized test scores
Criterion referenced test
a test that uses absolute standards to answer specific questions about the student mastery or how much a student has learned on the set criteria; The STAAR and TExAS are criterion referenced tests
Performance based assessment
an alternative assessment method based on a student's performance of a skill based on a real-life situation
Alternative assessment
include those that are nontraditional, meaning they are not the typical paper-and-pencil types of assessment; include portfolios or performance.
Formative Assessment
uses data collected to measure learning THROUGHOUT the course of instruction while concepts or skills are being "formed."
Summative Assessment
measure student learning toward the goals and objectives at the end of instruction or a specified period of time
a student qualifies for special education service and the student needs an IEP. Which THREE of the following people must be involved with the plan?
A. A special education teacher
B. A school administrator
C. A social worker
D. A counselor
E. A general education teacher
A, B, E
Which THREE of the following topics are most appropriate for a beginning teacher to discuss with a mentor?
A. The school's attendance and tardiness policy
B. Specific details of a student's home environment
C. Clarification of a topic discussed at a staff meeting
D. Methods for starting after-school tutoring for struggling students Answer: B
Which of the following teacher strategies will best help students enhance their own learning after being given quality feedback?
A. Assigning practice work and reassuring skills at the end of each unit
B. Asking students to confer with peer and regularly correct their work on their own time
C. sending a letter home to the parents detailing the progress a student has made
D. Providing students with timely opportunities to talk with the teacher about their work Answer:D
Fair use
US copyright law- copyright material may, under certain circumstances, be quoted verbatim for purposes such as criticism, news reporting, teaching, and research, without the need for permission from or payment to the copyright holder.
FERPA (family educational rights and privacy act).
protects privacy of students record
IDEA (individuals with disabilities education act)
Law ensures services to children with disibility. regulates intervention, special education, and related services. implemented and enforced through ARD
ARD (admission, review, dismissal)
admission, review, and dismissal process..special services for children with disibilities.
NCLB (no child left behind act)
ensure educational equity for ELL and SES students
PDAS (professional development and appraisal system)
appraisal system is designed to improve student performance through professional development for teachers.
Qualitative assessment
assess performance (collaborative activities, online discussion forums, constructive responses). Much automany and different responses.
Quantitative assessment
results are numerical and statistically reported
summative assessment
end of year or unit. cannot go back to revise.
formative assessment
continuing assessment. Teachers offers feedback and allows learner to adjust.
objective assessment
only one right answer
subjective assessment
multiple responses-usually constructed response format.
Assessment
ongoing support teachers provide to help students reach instructional goals.
Wiki
digital tool for encouraging collaborative thinking and writing through user created content.
Lesson
introduction, presentation, and conclusion.
astute restructuring
providing examples, and fully explaining complex concepts.
TELPAS (Texas english language proficiency assessment system)
summative assessment for ELLS
ELPS (english language proficiency standards)
ELL standards used for the TELPAS assesment
STAAR
state of texas assessment for academic readiness
authentic assessment
Informal assessment conducted daily.
Bloom's Taxonomy
Remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, creating.
TEKS
Texas essential knowledge and skills
Jean Piaget
Big figure in cognitive psychology .
Erik Erikson
Big figure in psychosocial development
4 stages in cognitive development
sensorimotor-
preoperational- egocentrism, language development, symbolic play
concrete operational-concrete, ordering ability-seriation and conservation
formal operational-abstract and deductive thinking
Acceptable use policy
a set of rules applied by the owner, creator or administrator of a network, website, or service, that restrict the ways in which the network, website or system may be used and sets guide lines as to how it should be used. EX. using photographs without permission.
Holistic scoring
scoring as a whole or overall grade.
analytical scoring
scoring each section separately
norm-referenced
compared and ranked across other groups
criterion referenced
not compared. it is measured by a fixed predetermined criteria
Ability
The degree of competence present in a student to perform a given physical or mental act.
Ability Example
Most first graders have the ability to answer questions about key story ideas, retell the story, and describe the characters.
Comp. 001 - Human Development
At Risk
Describing a student with socioeconomic challenges, such as poverty or teen pregnancy, that may place him or her at a disadvantage in achieving academic, social, or career goals. Also used to describe a student who is a low-achieving, slower learner who falls between regular and special education, but who may have a problem either physical, mental, educational requiring further evaluation and or intervention.
At Risk Example
The female student had never been considered at risk of dropping out until she became pregnant.
Comp. 001 - Human Development
Cognitive Development
Increasing complexity of thought and reasoning.
Cognitive Development Example
The cognitive development of a first grader's concept of geometric shapes will differ radically from that of a fifth grader's understanding of two and three dimensional shapes.
Comp. 001 - Human Development
Convergent Thinking
Thinking that occurs when the task, or question, is so structured that the number of possible appropriate conclusions is limited. Conclusions are usually limited to one conclusion.
Convergent Thinking Example
The activity had been designed to include convergent thinking that would lead the students to the one conclusion the teacher had planned for.
Comp. 001 - Human Development
Domains of Development
The different areas in which children develop as they grow older: cognitive (mental), social (relationships with others), emotional (one's feelings), and aesthetic (what one finds pleasing).
Domains of Development Example
By late childhood, most students have cultivated their domains of development to cope with feelings such as anger and jealousy.
Comp. 001 - Human Development
Nurture
To help or cause. To help something to happen or To cause something to increase.
Nurture Example
The teacher uses an understanding of human developmental processes to nurture student growth.
Comp. 001 - Human Development
Peer Pressure
The pressure a student feels to do the same things as other kids of same age and social group in order to be liked or respected by them.
Peer Pressure Example
Enrique stole something on a dare because of peer pressure from the kids he hangs out with. Stealing can lead to imprisonment or a fine or both.
Comp. 001 - Human Development
Reversibility
The ability to change direction in thinking and go back to a starting point.
Reversibility Example
The concrete operational phase is when students develop reversibility of thought. For example, students are able to count numbers not only forwards but backwards as well.
Comp. 001 - Human Development
Teacher Expectations
A teacher's opinion of the likelihood that students will be successful.
Teacher Expectations Example
The teacher expectations were high in the second-grade classroom. Before each lesson, the teacher would tell the students exactly what he expected to see as a product.
Comp. 001 - Human Development
Egocentric
Self-centered; indifferent to or unaware of others; believing that everyone sees the world as you do.
Egocentric Example
The egocentric young child was unable to shift into or see the other student's point of view and insisted there was only one correct way to address the issue successfully - hers.
Comp. 001 - Human Development
Industry vs. Inferiority
Erickson's fourth level of psycho-social development of children; generally during 6-11 years of age; at this stage, children need to experience activities that result in their feeling that they are industrious, productive, and capable of performing up to expectations.
Example of Industry vs. Inferiority
Children should have all the support necessary to be successful in the industry vs. inferiority level, otherwise they may fail and develop attitudes and beliefs that they are inferior to others.
Comp. 001 - Human Development
Accommodation
The modification of an existing way of doing something to fit a new experience.
Accommodation Example
The teacher was able to provide an accommodation to the student with listening comprehension difficulties by allowing him to listen to an audio recording of the story as many times as needed.
Comp. 002 - Student Diversity
Behavior Disorder
An emotional disability characterized by the an inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and/or teachers.
Behavior Disorder Example
The student was oppositional and defiant in class due to his behavior disorder.
Comp. 002 - Student Diversity
Cooperative Groups
A teaching strategy in which small groups of students work together on a common task and are rewarded on the basis of the success of the group.
Cooperative Groups Example
Pairing of students in cooperative groups is one effective strategy for exposing learners to a wide array of cultural and ability variances as they learn to appreciate others who may not be like them.
Comp. 002 - Student Diversity
Dyslexia
A disorder manifested by a difficulty in learning to read, write, or spell, despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence, and sociocultural opportunity
Dyslexia Example
The student with dyslexia was a very slow reader. Often he would have difficulty blending the letters to make words. Sometimes he would reverse the order of letters as he was reading.
Comp. 002 - Student Diversity
Exceptionality
A condition such as a sensory deficit, physical handicap, mental retardation, behavioral disorder communication disorder, special learning disability, gift, talent, being developmentally delayed, abused, or neglected.
Exceptionality Example
The gifted student displayed such exceptionality at critical thinking that he was placed in a specialized program.
Comp. 001 - Human Development
Instructional Implications of Student Diversity
The need for instructional materials and strategies/activities to reflect a knowledge of and support for the varied characteristics of students like, learning styles, handicapping conditions, gender expectations, cultural backgrounds, potential for at-risk indicators, age level.
Example of Instructional Implications of Student Diversity
Being aware of at-risk indicators and believing in bridging the achievement gap are instructional implications of student diversity.
Comp. 002 - Student Diversity
Language Background
Prior language experience.
Language Background Example
Since the teacher knew that the student's language background was Spanish, a list of cognates (words with similar spelling and meaning) was provided to help the student develop comprehension in English.
Comp. 002 - Student Diversity
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
LRE is not a place. It is a principle. The special education law (IDEA) says that a student who has a disability should be educated with non-disabled peers, to the greatest extent appropriate. They should have access to the general education curriculum, or any other program that non-disabled peers would be able to access; when LRE comes up, so do the words "mainstreaming" and "inclusion."
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) Example
The life skill student was included in science, social studies, and ancillary times with the general education classes in compliance with the least restrictive environment principle required by law.
Comp. 002 - Student Diversity
Mainstreaming
A mainstream classroom is a general education classroom. Mainstreaming or inclusion means putting a student with special education needs in the general education classroom for part or all of the school day. The child may also have some instruction in a special education classroom.
Mainstreaming Example
One benefit of mainstreaming is helps non-disabled students learn to accept, relate, have enhanced self-esteem, and develop a genuine capacity for friendship with those that might be "different."
Comp. 002 - Student Diversity
Think-Pair-Share
It is a learning strategy in which students work together to answer a question. It encourages individual participation; it gives voices to quieter students and to those learning to communicate in English. The steps are: students think independently about the question posed; they are grouped in pairs to discuss their thoughts; they share their ideas.