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AFOQT

Terms in this set (244)

Manufacturer's Empty Weight (MEW)
the total weight of the aircraft as it was built. Includes systems and components required for the aircraft to operate. Does NOT include the weight of the baggage, passengers, or either usable or unusable fuel or fluid.
Operating Empty Weight (OEW)
the MEW plus the weight of the crew, fluids, unusable fuel, and the equipment required for flight. Does NOT include baggage, passengers, or usable fuel.
All-Up Weight (AUW) or Aircraft Gross Weight (AGW)
the total aircraft weight at any given moment during a flight. The AUW decreases as fuel and fluids are consumed during the operation of the flight.
Maximum Landing Weight (MLW)
an aircraft's weight limit for landing. Exceeding this weight increases stress on the landing gear and may affect the distance required for a safe landing
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW)
the permissible weight of an aircraft with its contents and includes unusable fuel. The total MZFW excludes the weight of usable fuel on board and any consumable fluids
Maximum Takeoff Weight (MTOW)
an aircraft's weight limit for takeoff. Exceeding this limit increases the power required for takeoff, lengthens the runway distance needed for a successful lift off, and places excess stress on the aircraft structure
Maximum Ramp Weight (MRW)
the weight limit for an aircraft to taxi or be towed on the ground
Flight Envelope
Encompasses the limits of speed, altitude, and angle of attack required by any aircraft to maintain a stable flight. An incorrect combination of these may result in a stall, during which the aircraft experiences a decrease in lift and a reduction in airspeed
Angle of Attack (AOA)
the angle measured between the direction of airflow against the wing and the chord (an imaginary reference line the extends from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the wing
Ailerons
Located on from the midpoint of the trailing edge of the wing to the wing's tip. Help with roll control
Flaps
located on the trailing edge of the wing; increase wing's surface area and deflect the air flow downward. Allow planes to lift at slower speeds.
Spoilers
Located directly forward of the trailing edge flaps to assist the ailerons in roll control and to act as speed brakes for descent and landing. Extend upward to help reduce airspeed (ex: raised when landing to help assist brakes in slowing airplane down)
Drag
air resistance experienced during flight
Parasite Drag
any "parasite" on the structure of the aircraft: low air pressure in the tires, skin friction (any rough spot on the skin of the aircraft structure) This, along with any rivet heads that may project above the skin, causes resistance to the air current flowing across the wing.
Profile Drag
Produced mainly by the shape of the aircraft. A smaller slimmer aircraft reduces profile drag.
Induced Drag
When, at the back of the wing, air flowing rapidly across the top meets air flowing more slowly underneath, creating a vortex. This type of drag depends on the performance of the aircraft. When lift, airspeed, and AOA increase, induced drag automatically increases too.
When an airplane increases its lift, which statement is true about the air pressure flowing above and below its wings?
Air pressure is lower above the wings and higher below the wings, producing lift.
Bernoulli's Principle
As the speed of a fluid increases, its pressure decreases. Air flows faster over the top of the wing leading to lower pressure. Air flows slower on the bottom of the wing, increasing pressure. Upward push creates lift!
Longitudinal Axis (Roll)
runs lengthwise from the nose to the tail
Lateral Axis (Pitch)
runs wingtip to wingtip
Vertical Axis (Yaw)
Runs perpendicular to the wings at the center of the aircraft
Trim
Aircraft's desired position.
Roll
along the aircraft's longitudinal axis; controlled by ailerons, located at trailing edge of the wings.
Pitch
the lateral angle of ascent or descent; controlled by elevators, located in the rear portion of the horizontal tail assebly
Yaw
Controlled by the rudder, located in the rear part of the tail assembly; movement of the rudder causes the nose to move from side to side.
Pressure Altimeter
in the cockpit based on atmospheric pressure. Calibrated automatically for 29.92 of mercury (Hg). Pilot resets the pressure altitudeindicator after departing an airfieldto ensure the correct pressure altitude of the aircraft is displayed for the destinatin airfield
Aircraft perform more efficiently in what weather?
Colder wether because the air is denser than warm air. (Except if air drops too low and de-icing is necessary) [high air density increases engine performance]
Fuselage
the main body of an aircraft that holds the crew, passengers, and cargo. Wings, tail, engines, and landing gear attach to the fuselage, so it must be extremely strong to withstand stresses while minimizing weight. Also helps stabilize plane in flight
Truss Struture
Consists of welded steel-tubing longerons separated by diagonal members to endure the loads placed upon the aircraft
Monocoque Structure
consists of a thin sheet-aluminum alloy curved to fit the shell of the fuselage. This metal skin is designed to withstand the stress of loads and minimize the total weight the total weight of the aircraft.
Monocoque Structure
consists of a thin sheet-aluminum alloy curved to fit the shell of the fuselage. This metal skin is designed to withstand the stress of loads and minimize the total weight the total weight of the aircraft.
Semi-Cantilever Wing
requires both internal bracing and external support from struts attached to the fuselage
Biplane
an airplane with two pairs of wings
Thickness
a percentage of the wing chord; typically ranges from 6.5 to 13.5 percent
Camber Line
amount of curvature of the wing. Imaginary line runs halfway between upper and lower surfaces of the wing.
Chord
the imaginary line in an airfoil; establishes a baseline for the amount of camber and width required of the wing along with its wingspan
How many types of wing platforms are there?
4 (rectangular, elliptical, tapered, and swept)
Rectangular wing planform
the simplest type, highly inefficient, and typically used for light general aviation
Elliptical wing planform
the most efficient style, with the lowest possible induced drag
Tapered wing planform
cross between a rectangular and an elliptical, providing better lift distribution and moderate efficiency. Aircraft with these wings have a wide range of speeds
Swept wing planform
tapered back to reduce drag. Includes slightly swept, moderately swept, and sharply swept types. Disadvantages: tendency to twist under stress
The amount of lift generated is dependent on the difference between the camber line and the _________
chord line (when the measurements of the chord line and camber line differ greatly, the curvature of the wing will provide more lift)
powerplant
encompasses the engines and propellers as well as the induction, exhaust, electrical, cooling, lubrication, and fuel systems
reciprocating engine
An engine that converts heat energy created by combusted fuel mixed with air into reciprocating piston movement, which in turn is converted into a rotary motion via a crankshaft. (typically aircraft with cruising speed not exceeding 250 mph)
gas turbine engine
Engine that burns natural gas, sending a hot, high-pressure stream of gas through a turbine connected to an electrical generator. (larger more powerful planes)
turbo-supercharged reciprocating engine
aircraft traveling at high altitudes (over 30,000 ft)
Turbojet engine
A turbine engine which produces its thrust entirely by accelerating the air through the engine. (those that operate at Mach 1 or higher)
during takeoff, engines operate at ________
maximum performance
fixed pitch propeller
pitch has a blade angle that can't be changed by the pilot. The propeller is connected directly to the engine's crankshaft; engine power rotates the crankshaft as well as the propeller, and the propeller converts the engine's rotary power into thrust
Variable pitch propeller
Allows the pilot to adjust the blade pitch during flight
pusher propeller
installed on the rear of an aircraft and faces to the rear; the thrust created from its rotation pushes on the rear of an aircraft instead of pulls the aircraft, contrary to fixed and variable
The pitch of any styles of propeller affects _______
the way it cuts through the air, producing air mass
Thrust Horsepower Equation
thp=(thrust x aircraft speed (in mph))/375 pph
Styles of landing gear
tail wheel, tandem, tricycle
tail wheel
landing gear consisting of a third wheel assembly, beneficial for landing on non-paved runways (when aircraft's main landing gear is positioned forward of its center of gravity)
tandem landing gear
has both main and tail portions mounted along the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. Supports the use of flexible wings
tricycle landing gear
includes a main gear and a nose gear, which together support increased braking ability, higher landing speeds, and better visibility for ground operations
tail (empennage)
rear portion of the aircraft; provides stability and consists of the rudder, vertical stabilizer, horizontal stabilizer, the trim tabs, and 2 elevators
vertical tail structure consists of _____
rudder and vertical stabilizer
rudder
used to keep the aircraft in coordinated flight; at the rear end of the vertical stabilizer
Vertical Stabilizer
To control yaw.
horizontal tail structure consists of _____
horizontal stabilizer and elevators
horizontal stabilizer
at the front end of the tail structure; prevents the aircraft from pitching up and down
elevators
part on a plane's tail that makes the plane go up and down; hinged to the horizontal stabilizer
trim tabs
on the trailing edges of the wings toward the fuselage, the rudder, and the elevators. Act as a secondary flight control system, helping to offset an undesirable altitude of the aircraft and relieving pressure on the controls
primary flight control system
manages ailerons, elevators, and rudder. Designed for the safe maneuvering of the aircraft and the elimination of over-controlling measures introduced by the pilot
secondary flight control system
manages the flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers, trim tabs, Assist the pilot in optimizing aircraft performance during flight
coordinate movement
throttle-increases/decreases power
joystick/control wheel-directs the aircraft left, right, nose up, nose down
pedals- shift the rudder, which moves the aircraft left or right
4 Fundamental Flight Maneuvers
Straight and level flight, turns, climbs, and descents
Straight and level flight
Main maneuver, Wing tips even with horizon, Constant heading and altitude is maintained
turns
ailerons should be banked toward direction of the turn. To return to level flight, the vertical lift component must equal the weight of the aircraft. (3 types: shallow, medium, steep)
To perform a turn, actions required are:
1. The pilot moves the stick (cyclic) to the left for lefts turns or right for right turns
2. Enough power or pitching up is also added to counteract the loss of lift
3. The controls are neutralized to stop any increase in the bank angle and to maintain the desired bank angle
4. After the turn is accomplished, the ailerons are leveled to resume flight
Shallow Turn
bank of less than 20 degrees; after this turn, the stability of an aircraft naturally returns to level flight without pilot interference
Medium turn
bank roughly 20-45 degrees; pilot must input aileron pressure to return the aircraft to level flight
Steep Turns
any bank greater than 45 degrees; after a steep turn the pilot must input opposite pressure on the controls to return the aircraft to level flight
Climbs
when an aircraft flight path changes from a lower to a higher level in altitude. Pilot must increase lift to overcome the aircraft's weight (if not, results in decrease of airspeed; to correct, input thrust)
Normal climb (cruise climb)
performed within the aircraft manufacturer's standards; the aircraft increases airspeed, but it my not be operating at its optimum performance
Best Rate of Climb
gaining the most altitude in a given amount of time using the most power available to reach cruising altitude (Vy). Steeper than a normal and results in greatest altitude gain over a set amount of time. Used during takeoff or when needs to gain altitude quickly
Best Angle of Climb
gaining the most altitude over a given distance. Used during takeoff, but also at airports where there are obstructions in the flight path. Navigating obstacles requires this
Descents
the opposite of a climb. Engine power levels must be reduced to maintain airspeed and avoid an excess speed situation
Partial Power Descent
Preferred way to decrease altitude. Aircraft should drop at a rate of 500 feet per minute
Minimum Safe Airspeed (MSA)
a nose-high controlled descent used to clear obstacles on a short runway. Aircraft's angle is steeper than during a partial power descent.
Emergency Descent
occurs when an aircraft rapidly loses altitude
percent of change formula
percent of change=amount of change/original amount
percentages
part=whole x percent
percent=part/whole
whole=part/percent
midpoint formula
(x₁+x₂)/2, (y₁+y₂)/2
distance formula
d = √[( x₂ - x₁)² + (y₂ - y₁)²]
quadratic equation
quadratic equation axis of symmetry (x point of vertex)
x=-(b/2a)
quadratic formula
x = -b ± √(b² - 4ac)/2a
supplementary angles
Two angles whose sum is 180 degrees
complementary angles
Two angles whose sum is 90 degrees
Circumference of a circle
2πr
Area of a circle
A=πr²
Area of a triangle
A= 1/2 bh
Pythagorean Theorem
a²+b²=c²
where c always represents the hypotenuse and a and b represent the other sides of a right triangle
Triangle Inequality Theorem
The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the length of the third side. and greater than their distance
Polygon Angle Sum Theorem
The sum of the measures of the angles of an n-gon is (n-2)180 (n is number of sides)
Polygons and Interior Angles
Sum of interior angles of a polygon = (n-2) x 180, where n is the number of sides.

Corners of a polygon known as vertices (vertex singular).

Can cut a polygon into triangles, count the number of triangles, and multiply by 180.

Triangle = 3 sides = 180 degrees
Quadrilateral = 4 sides = 360 degrees
Pentagon = 5 sides = 540 degrees
Hexagon = 6 sides = 720 degrees
Polygon Area
1/2ap
polygons exterior angles
all add up to 360 degrees
atom
Smallest particle of an element that is still identifiable as a part of that element; if you break down an atom any further, it is no longer an identifiable element
protons
positively charged subatomic particles
electrons
negatively charged subatomic particles
neutrons
the particles of the nucleus that have no charge
atomic number
the number of protons in an atom; all atoms of the same element have the same number of protons (called the element's atomic number)
Number of known elements
115-88 occur naturally, all others are manufactured
periodic table to elements
A table that classifies elements by their physical and chemical properties; rows are called periods; columns are called groups; each element is listed in order of increasing atomic number and aligned so that the elements exhibit similar qualities
elements in the periodic table exhibit trends across periods and groups:
-elements within a group have the same outer electron arrangement. The number of the main group corresponds to the number of valence electrons in those elements; however, most of the transition elements contain 2 electrons in their valence shells
-the horizontal rows correspond to the number of occupied electron shells of the atom
-the elements set below the main table are the lanthanides (upper row) and actinides. They also usually have 2 electrons in their outer shells
-in general, the elements increase in mass from left to right and from top to bottom
ions
atoms of the same element that have different numbers of electrons and will have a charge (electrons don't equal protons)
-postitive ions=cations
-negative ions=anions
isotopes
atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons but same number of protons
molecule
when 2 or more atoms join together they form a molecule
covalent bond
A chemical bond formed when two atoms share electrons
ionic bond
the attraction between oppositely charged ions
compound
a thing that is composed of two or more separate elements; a mixture. (water)
-compounds made up of identical molecules are called pure substances (water)
mixture
consists of 2 or more substances that are not chemically bonded
homogenous mixture
a mixture in which the composition is uniform throughout (salt water, air)
heterogeneous mixture
a mixture in which the composition is not uniform throughout (vegetable soup, rocks and soil)
solution
A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
-if the solution is a liquid, the material being dissolved is a solute, and the liquid it is being dissolved in is called the solvent
saturated solution
a solution that contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute
changes in states of matter
Melting: solid to liquid
Freezing: liquid to solid
Evaporation: liquid to gas
Condensation: gas to liquid
Sublimation: solid to gas (dry ice)
Deposition: gas to solid (water vapor freezing into a solid)
chemical reaction
the process by which one or more substances change to produce one or more different substances. Caused primarily by a change in bonding structure in these substances due to exchange of electrons
reagents (reactants)
starting substances of a reaction
products
Ending materials in a chemical reaction.
single-displacement reaction
a reaction in which one element or radical takes the place of another element or radical in a compound
synthesis reaction
a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a single product (C + O2--> CO2)
decomposition reaction
a reaction in which a single compound breaks down to form two or more simpler substances
combustion reaction
a chemical reaction that occurs when a substance reacts with oxygen, releasing energy in the form of heat and light (the products are always water and carbon dioxide)
-ex: kerosene reacting with oxygen to light a lamp
oxidation/reduction reaction
any chemical change in which one species is oxidized (loses electrons) and another species is reduced (gains electrons); also called redox reaction; electrons are transferred between atoms; total number of electrons does not change, they get shifted around
-reducing agent: the element doing the oxidizing; has given electrons, or been reduced
-oxidizing agent: the reduced element; has taken electrons from a different element
matter
Anything that has mass and takes up space
mass
A measure of the amount of matter in an object
-measured in grams (g) or kilograms (kg)
extrinsic properties
Refers to properties one can change such as size, shape, amount, and texture
intrinsic properties
properties that do not change based on the amount present (density and specific gravity)
Matter can undergo ________ and ________ changes.
physical and chemical
chemical change
A change that occurs when one or more substances change into entirely new substances with different properties. (burning of wood transforms into smoke and ash, lighting a match)
physical change
A change in a substance that does not involve a change in the identity of the substance (cutting a piece of wood, melting ice)
acid
A substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. (orange juice, vinegar)
-sour taste
-react strongly with metals
-pH between 0 and 7
base
a compound that produces hydroxide ions in solution (bleach, detergent)
-taste bitter
-slippery texture
-pH between 7 and 14
pH value
is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration within a solution, and a substrate is a molecular surface acted upon by an enzyme.
-neutral solution, has same number of hydrogen and hydroxide ions, has a pH of 7
buffer
weak acid or base that can react with strong acids or bases to help prevent sharp, sudden changes in pH
scalar
a physical quantity that has quantity but no direction
vectors
quantities that have both a magnitude and a direction
distance
How far an object has moved along its path; is a scalar (values such as 54 east or 16 miles)
displacement
how far an object has traveled from its starting position; is a vector (54m east or -16 miles)
speed
how quickly something is moving (distance/time)
-scalar value
velocity
rate at which an object changes position (displacement/time)
-an object that travels a certain distance then returns to its starting point has a velocity of zero
-speed of an object in a certain direction (moving soccer ball)
-vector value
Acceleration
The rate at which velocity changes
force
A push or pull exerted on an object
-gravity: the attraction of one mass to another mass
-tension: ie ropes pulling or holding up an object
-friction: created by 2 objects moving against each other
-normal force: when an object is resting on another object
buoyant force: the upward force experienced by floating objects
equilibrium
A state of balance; when an object is at rest or moving with a constant speed
Newton's First Law
An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
Newton's Second Law
Force equals mass times acceleration
Newton's Third Law
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
energy
the ability to do work (2 kinds: potential and kinetic)
kinetic energy
the energy an object has due to its motion
potential energy
when objects have the potential to be in motion due to their position
-defined in relation to a specific point
-ex: book held 10 feet off the ground has more potential energy than a book held 5 feet off the ground because it has the potential to do more work
gravitational potential energy
potential energy related to an object's height
electric potential energy
Energy a charge has due to its location in an electric field
elastic potential energy
the potential energy of an object that is stretched or compressed
chemical potential energy
Energy stored in chemical bonds
temperature
the name given to kinetic energy of all atoms or molecules in a substance. While it might not look like a substance is in motion, its atoms are constantly spinning and vibrating. The more energy the atoms have, the higher the substance's temperature.
heat
the movement of energy from one substance to another. Energy will spontaneously more from high-energy (high-temp) substances to low-energy (low-temp) substances. This energy can be transferred by radiation, convection, or conduction
radiation
does not need a medium; the sun radiates energy to the earth through the vacuum of space
conduction
occurs when 2 substances are in contact with each other (pan placed on a hot stove, the heat energy is conducted from the stove to the pan and then to the food in the pan)
convection
The transfer of heat by the circular movement of air or fluids. Ex: convection oven transfers heat through movement caused by hot air rising and cold air sinking
waves
repeating pulses of energy.
mechanical waves
Waves that travel through a medium, like ripples on a pond or compressions in a slinky
-travel faster through denser mediums (ex: sound waves move faster through water than air)
transverse waves
waves that travel up and down (ripples on a pond)
longitudinal wave
A wave that moves the medium in a direction parallel to the direction in which the wave travels. (slinky)
(vibrations travel in the same direction as the energy)
crest
Highest point of a wave
trough
Lowest point of a wave
amplitude
distance between the midline and the crest (or trough)
wavelength
The distance between crests (or troughs) of waves
period
the time that it takes a complete cycle or wave oscillation to occur
Frequency of a wave
number of cycles a wave goes through in a specific period of time
sound
a type of longitudinal wave created by vibrations, ears interpret those waves as sounds. The frequency (rate) of the vibration determines the sound's pitch
-loudness depends on the amplitude, or height, of a sound wave
Doppler effect
A change in sound frequency caused by motion of the sound source, motion of the listener, or both. (ambulance siren pitch is loud when it gets close, but seems to decrease the farther it gets)
electromagnetic waves
composed of oscillating electric and magnetic fields and thus do not require a medium to travel through. Classified based on frequency--radio waves, microwaves, X-rays, and visible light
optics
the study of light. Visible light is a wave, and will display similar properties to other waves
reflect
to bend or throw back light or heat; to fold or turn back
refract
to bend light so that it looks like it is broken
color
the frequency of a light wave
-red/orange colors have a lower frequency than blue/violet
-white light is a blend of all the frequencies of visible light. Passing white light through a prism will bend each frequency at a slightly different angle, separating the colors and creating a rainbow.
electric charge
created by a difference in the balance of protons and electrons, which create a positively or negatively charged object. Charged objects create an electric field that spreads outward from the object. Other charged objects in that field will experience a force-objects that have opposite charges will be attracted to each other, and objects with the same charge will be repelled, or pushed away, from each other
Conductors and Insulators
electrons move easily in good conductors and poorly in good insulators
electrostatic charge (static electricity)
occurs when a surface has a buildup of charges. (student rubs a balloon on her head, the friction will cause electrons to move from her hair to the balloon. this creates a negative charge on the balloon and a positive charge on her hair; the resulting attraction will cause her hair to more toward the balloon)
electricity
the movement of electrons through a conductor
electric circuit
a complete, unbroken path through which electric charges can flow. Circuits include a voltage source, which powers the movement of electrons known as current (measured in Amperes or Amps)
-sources of voltage include batteries, generators, and wall outlets
resistors
Devices that apply resistance to a circuit to manage current. Resistance is measures in Ohms
magnets
created by the alignment of spinning electrons within a substance. This alignment will occur naturally in some substances including iron, nickel, and cobalt all of which can be used to produce permanent magnets
magnetic field
a region around a magnetic material or a moving electric charge within which the force of magnetism acts. Have a north and south pole that act similarly to electric charges: opposite poles will attract, and same poles will repel each other. Unlike an electric charge which can be positive or negative, a magnetic field ALWAYS has 2 poles
Electricity and Magnetism
closely related-Electricity can be used to create magnetism and vice versa.
-a moving magnet creates an electric field, and a moving charged particle will create a magnetic field
Every planet, except ______ and ______ have moons, or naturally occurring satellites that orbit a planet
Mercury and Venus
asteroids and comets
small rocky or icy objects that orbit the sun-many are clustered in the asteroid belt, located between Mars and Juptier
Our solar system consists of
8 planets revolving around the sun and smaller objects also orbiting the sun.
List the planets in order from the sun
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune (MVEMJSUN: my very energetic mom just said uncle ned)
galaxies
A collection of stars, dust, and gas bound together by gravity and contain millions of stars
stars
hot balls of glowing gas and plasma that emit light
lunar eclipse
an eclipse in which the moon appears darkened as it passes into the earth's shadow.
-earth is between the sun and moon
solar eclipse
The blocking of sunlight to Earth that occurs when the moon is directly between the sun and Earth.
how long it takes the earth to rotate on its axis
24 hours; 1 day
how long it takes the earth to revolve around the sun
about 365 days, 1 year
mineral
a naturally occurring, solid, inorganic solid that has a crystal structure and a definite chemical composition (talc, diamonds, topaz)
rock
A naturally occurring solid mixture of one or more minerals; can be either organic or inorganic. Classified based on their formation- igneous, sedentary, and metamorphic
igneous rock
a type of rock that forms from the cooling of molten rock at or below the surface
sedimentary rock
A type of rock that forms when particles from other rocks or the remains of plants and animals are pressed and cemented together as a result of weathering and erosion
metamorphic rock
A type of rock that forms from an existing rock that is changed by heat, pressure, or chemical reactions.
the rock cycle
an idealized cycle of processes undergone by rocks in the earth's crust, involving igneous intrusion, uplift, erosion, transportation, deposition as sedimentary rock, metamorphism, remelting, and further igneous intrusion.
Paleontology
a science dealing with prehistoric life through the study of fossils
earth's layers
lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, inner core (outer core is a liquid layer, inner core is composed of solid iron)
Lithosphere
made up of tectonic plates; the earth's surface layer/outermost layer
hydrosphere
All the water at and near the surface of the earth, 97% of which is in oceans (71% of the earth's surface)
5 oceans of the world
Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, Arctic
icebergs
huge chunks of floating glacial ice
water cycle
The continual movement of water among Earth's atmosphere, oceans, and land surface through evaporation, condensation, and precipitation
atmosphere
the envelope of gases surrounding the earth or another planet.
Earth's atmosphere
-troposphere (closest to earth)
-stratosphere (ozone layer, which captures harmful radiation is in this layer)
-mesosphere
-thermosphere
-exosphere (outermost layer, 6,200 miles above the surface)

(made up of 78% Nitrogen)
weather
The condition of Earth's atmosphere at a particular time and place.
climate
Overall weather in an area over a long period of time
3 major climate zones
-polar (cold temperatures, tundra, highlands, nonpermanent ice, and ice cap)
-temperate (moderate temps, include Mediterranean, humid subtropical, marine West Coast, humid continental, and subarctic)
-tropical (warm temps, can be divided into tropical wet, tropical wet and dry, semiarid, and arid)
rules of exponents
*Multiplying numbers with the same base - when you multiply numbers that have the same base, you add their exponents.
*Dividing numbers with the same base - subtract the bottom exponents from the top exponents.
*Raising a power to a power - you multiply the exponents
*Distributing exponents - when several numbers are inside parenthesis, the exponent outside the parenthesis must be distributed to all of the numbers within.
Triangle Inequality Theorem
The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the length of the third side. one side is 7, another is 3, the third has to be between 4 and 10
quadratic equation standard form
ax² + bx + c = 0
vertex: (-b/2a, f(-b/2a))
Axis of symmetry: -b/2a
-if a is positive, then it opens upward
-if a is negative, then it opens downward
-if the absolute value of a is less than 1, then the parabola will get wider the closer |a| is to 0
-if the absolute value of a is greater than 1, thenthe larger |a| becomes, the narrower the parabola will be
Find x intercept
plug in 0 for y
To find y intercept
plug in 0 for x
in quadratic equations, the discriminant (b^2-4ac), tells how many and what type of roots will results without actually calculating the roots
If discriminant is 0, there will be only 1 real roots, and have vertex on the x-axis
-if discriminant is positive, there will be 2 real roots, and 2 x-intercepts
-if it is negative, there will be 0 real roots, 2 complex roots, and no x-intercepts
Third Side Rule
The length of any one side of a triangle must be less than the sum of the other two sides, and greater than the difference between the other two sides. c-b<a<c+b
What flight control maintains the engine within optimal flight parameters?
the throttle
Inversely proportional relationship
Changing #1 factor causes an opposite change in factor #2, AND at the same rate. Doubling something may half something else.

A relationship between two variables in which the product is a constant. When one variable increases the other decreases in proportion so that the product is unchanged. If b is inversely proportional to a, the equation is of the form b = k/a (where k is a constant). Equation: y = 60/x. y is inversely proportional to x.
speed of sound
761 mph, 343 m/s
resistance is measured in
Ohms (Ω)
electricity is the movement of electrons through
a conductor
Waves with the highest frequency
gamma rays
dissolving sugar in water is a
physical change
Outer shell of atoms are known as:
valence electrons
stalling speed
the minimum speed at which an aircraft can maintain level flight. As the aircraft gains altitude, the stall speed increases, since the aircraft's weight can be better supported through speed
Non-precision Instrument Runways provide what kind of guidance?
horizontal
Volume of a cylinder
V=πr²h
Cylinder Surface Area
2πrh+2πr²
Non-precision
...
Vertical angles
always equal
Which of the following waves on the electromagnetic spectrum has the lowest frequency?
microwaves
The distance between a wave's crest and trough is known as the
wave height
planets in our solar system considered gas giants
Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune
How many electrons can be held in the first shell?
2
Measure of frequency
Hertz
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