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Psy 213 final exam Dr. West

Terms in this set (84)

Focus of study for psychologists
behavior & mental processes
Wundt's psychology
school of structuralism; first psychological laboratory in 1897 in Germany
schools of psychology
-Wundt: structuralism (structuralists were concerned with how the mind constructs sensations and perceptions; research method was introspection, which involved analyzing their own sensory experiences
-Freud: founded psychoanalysis; used free association and dream interpretation to unravel one's unconscious experiences;
-John B. Watson: founded school of behaviorism, which emphasized overt, observable behavior; stressed connection between stimulus and (S-R) psychology
-Humanistic: emphasized freedom for self-direction; Maslow & Rogers; believed that people are free to change their behavior; existential is similar, but it emphasized that each person is responsible for one's own happiness
research methods:
-observation: based on recording behavior as it occurs in natural-life settings or in a laboratory

-survey: utilizes interviews and questionnaires

-standardized tests: requires people to answer prescribed questions, and their score is compared to scores in the norm sample

-case study: involves gaining a great deal of information on a single individual
experimental method
involves the systematic varying of conditions and observing the results; researchers randomly assign participants to groups and control all conditions other than one or more independent variables, which are then manipulated to determine their effect on some behavioral measure-- the dependent variable in the experiment; purpose of the experiment is to discover if such relations between the independent and dependent variables exist
neurons
nerve cells that contain three parts: soma(cell body), dendrites, and axon
neurotransmitters
chemical substances that aid in the transmission of information between neurons
brain hemispheres
left: involved in the understanding and production of speech and language

right: image-oriented and creative
when signs of brain appear in human embryo
3 weeks after conception
Gestalt psychology-perception:
the brain's process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give it meaning
Gestalt principles of organization
1- proximity: items closer together will be viewed together
2- similarity: items which are like one another will form wholes
3- closure: we fill in parts not presented to see a whole
4- continuity: we follow a pattern to the logical conclusion and prefer perceptions of continuous figures
selective attention
the process of allowing only certain sensory messages to be received
perceptual constancy
recognition that objects are constant and unchanging even though sensory input about them is changing
depth perception
ability to perceive 3-D space & objects
binocular cues
requires use of both eyes; result from 2 general processes:
-convergence(inward rotation of the eyes as an object moves closer to us)
-binocular disparity( difference between the images on the 2 retinas)
REM sleep
Rapid Eye Movement; benefits: learning motor skills, maintenance of mood and emotion, storing memories, fewer sniffles, helps have a trimmer waistline, lower risk of heart disease
NREM sleep
Non-Rapid Eye Movement;
hypnosis
procedure which produces a state of heightened suggestibility or susceptibility to outside influence; can be used for pain reduction (chronic or single episode, natural childbirth, pulling teeth, some types of cancer treatment), in quitting smoking, and in losing weight; hypnotic susceptibility is at maximum during pre-teen years
meditation
an altered state of consciousness induced by a refocusing of attention; suggested benefits: lessened irritability; improvement in low-grade, chronic depression; reduced levels of chronic pain; lessened anxiety and hostility; greater self-assertion; improved problem-solving abilities; and improved stress management
psychoactive drugs
interact with the central nervous system to alter mood, perception, and behavior
classical conditioning- Pavlov, Watson
a procedure in which a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response until the neutral stimulus alone comes to elicit a similar response
-Pavlov/Watson's experiments: CS,US,UR,CR;
CS: dog running to you
US: food
UR: running
CR: sound of can
operant conditioning
one operates on his/her environment; specific, voluntary behaviors are reinforced (or punished)
-basic assumption: behavior is influenced by its consequences
reinforcement schedules
Fixed ratio, Fixed interval, variable ratio, variable interval
shaping
reinforcing successive approximations of the target behavior
social learning theory
observation and modeling; Bandura's experiment with the Bobo doll
short-term memory
used to accomplish a specific task; limited space 7 plus or minus 2 for about 30 seconds; "chunking" increases the capacity of STM; serial-position effect: first and last items in a series are better recalled than those in the middle
long-term memory
ability to store a great deal of information for a long period of time;
theories of forgetting
-decay theory: memory of an item spontaneously fades with time
-interference theory: one memory interferes with the recall of another; 2 types: retroactive(new information interferes with the recall of old) & proactive(old info interferes with the recall of new)
-retrieval failure theory: proper retrieval cues aren't available
-motivated forgetting (repression): tend to forget unpleasant memories
maintenance rehearsal
repeating information over and over to keep it in STM
elaborative rehearsal
analyzing the meaning of the information to put it into LTM
2 forms: semantic coding (remembering the general meaning of words/sentences) and imagery coding (forming a mental image
theories of intelligence
Cattell's fluid & crystallized intelligence: fluid is not dependent on formal education; related to CNS development; declines some with age. Crystallized is related to experiences and culture; does not decline much with age

multiple intelligences: Gardener proposed 9: logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, and existential

Sternberg proposed 3 (triarchic Theory of Intelligence): componential (analytical thinking and abstract reasoning), experiential (insightful and creative thinking), and contextual (practical know-how and street smart)
emotional intelligence
the ability to process emotional information accurately and efficiently, 4 areas are involved: developing emotional awareness, managing emotions, reading emotions, and handling relationships
deviation IQ
compares one's performance to that of his or her age mates in the standardization sample
Wechsler scales
3 scales for preschoolers, school-aged children, and adults: WPPSI-IV ( 2 &1/2-7 & 1/2 yrs), WISC-V (6-16 yrs), WAIS-IV (16-90 yrs); includes verbal subtests and nonverbal subtests
IQ classifications
-Extremely high: 130 & above
-Very high: 120-129
-High average: 110-119
-Average: 90-109
-Low average: 80-89
-Very low: 70-79
-Extremely low: 69 & below
reliability
consistency of test scores
validity
test measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure or predict
misconceptions about intelligence tests
1- intelligence tests measure innate intelligence(based on interactions with environment)
2- IQ's are fixed and never change(can change with development, especially from birth to 6 years)
3- intelligence tests provide perfectly reliable scores(test scores are only estimates
achievement motivation
desire to excel, striving for excellence and success
intrinsic motivation
doing something because it is fun and rewarding; it is an end in itself
extrinsic motivation
doing something to get something else; it is a means to an end
attribution theory
considers to what or to whom a person assigns responsibility for success or failure
locus of control
tells where that responsibility is assigned
-people w/ internal LOC: tend to see their successes or failures as the consequences of their own actions and characteristics
-people w/ external LOC: tend to credit or blame outside forces
Bandura's self-efficacy theory
focuses on expectations of efficacy rather than feelings
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
-physiological: being fed/clothes
-safety: safe place
-belongingness: having friends/family
-esteem: how you feel about yourself
-cognitive: need to know & understand education
-aesthetic: appreciation of beauty & order
-self-actualization: being satisfied in career
-transcendence: finding your faith
theories of emotion
-James-Lange: feedback from the body produces the emotion-- physiological changes first and then emotion
-Cannon-Bard: physiological changes and emotional feelings occur simultaneously
-facial feedback: emotion comes from an awareness of our facial expressions
-Schachter-Singer: cognitive arousal; emotion is a product of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation
-opponent process: for every emotional reaction, there is an opposite or opponent reaction
ID:
most primitive part, exists at birth, operates on the pleasure principle: wants immediate satisfaction of drives for pleasure
Ego
begins to emerge during 1st year of life; protects the person & copes with the real world; operates on the reality principle: tries to find safe, realistic ways to meet the ID's needs
Superego
begins to develop around 2-3 years; opposes desires of Id by enforcing moral restrictions and striving to attain a goal of perfection; equivalent to what we call "conscience"
freud's psychosexual stages
-oral: occurs during 1st year of life, emphasis on feeding
-anal: 2nd year, emphasis on elimination
-phallic: 3-6 years, most controversial stage, sexual feelings for opposite-sex parent, called Oedipus complex for boys & Electra complex for girls
-latency: 6-11 years, sexual feelings are repressed, emphasis on social & intellectual functioning
-genital: begins around 11 or 12 years, emphasis on identification with one's own sex & capacity for heterosexual love & commitment
defense mechanisms
unconscious ways to combat anxiety through the distortion of reality;
-repression: actively forgetting painful memories
-regression: retreat to behavior of an earlier stage of development
-projection: unknowingly projecting one's own unacceptable thoughts or motives to another
-displacement: venting one's feelings on an innocent person/object rather than the one involved
-undoing: trying to make up for something done or thought that was unacceptable
Freud's contributions to psychology
stressed importance of childhood to later development, gave us concept of defense mechanisms, & influenced other psychologists who developed their own theories
Jung
proposed the idea of a collective unconscious inherited from humanity's ancestors and a personal unconscious; proposed 2 personality orientations: introversion(quiet, reserved, energizes from time spent alone) and extroversion (outgoing, energizes from time spend with other people)
Adler
founded the school of individual psychology ; believed that the inability to overcome a childhood sense of incompleteness results in an inferiority complex
social learning theories
observation and modeling; Albert Bandura; reciprocal determinism-- process in which cognitions, behavior, and the environment mutually influence each other
projective hypothesis
states that if one presents a neutral, unstructured, ambiguous stimulus to an individual, that person will project part of his/her personality into the response
Rorschach inkblot technique
contains 10 cards with inkblots on them; TAT: contains ambiguous pictures, and the person is asked to tell a story about each picture; the story should include what is happening, what led up to the event, how the characters are feeling, and the outcome
MMPI
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory; NOT a projective technique; considered to be a valid and reliable; it can assist in developing a clinical diagnosis and personality description; can be used to predict prison adjustment, alcoholism, and acute depression; it is very useful in predicting suitable candidates for psychotherapy
causes of birth defects
mother having bad diet, drugs, alcohol, smoking, being exposed to chemicals or radiation, etc
attachment
emotional bond formed between infant and primary caregiver; parents can contribute to secure attachment by providing prompt & sensitive responses to the baby's needs as well as providing social stimulation
assimilation
the process whereby new concepts and experiences are incorporated into existing ones and are then used in a meaningful way
accommodation
the adjustment to new objects or stimuli by acquiring new responses
Piaget's stages of cognitive development
--sensorimotor-control of body movement to interact with environment is important; develops object permanence; object exists even when not physically present (ex: child looking for hidden toy)
--preoperational- learning to represent the world symbollically, in words or visual images, is important; egocentrism (cannot understand differing perspectives)
--concreteoperational- ability to predict reactions and to reason logically is seen; conservation (quantity remains the same although its dimensions may change)
--formal operational- characterized by ability to use abstract thinking; hypothetical-deductive reasoning; can imagine possibilities; metacognition
Harlow's experiments
attachment to father's is similar to attachment to mothers
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
-Stage 1(birth-1yr): trust verses mistrust; warm, responsive, consistent care needed to build trust
-Stage 2(2-3 years): autonomy verses shame & doubt; parents should let their children try out skills at their own pace: overprotection or lack of support could lead to shame and doubt for child
-Stage 3(4-5 yrs): initiative vs guilt; encourage children to feel free to try new activities and to ask questions; children are eager for responsibility now, and their contribution should be valued
-Stage 4(6-11 yrs): industry verses inferiority; children need to learn basic academic skills in school and how to complete assigned tasks; never finishing what is started and criticism can lead to inferiority feelings
-Stage 5(12-18 yrs): identity verses role confusion; primary danger is failing to develop a consistent concept of self; questions such as "Who am I?" & "what will my career be?" are considered; "identity crisis" is term used to represent this kind of struggle to develop an identity; good self-concept and sense of values, internal stability, and positive feedback can help establish one's identity
-Stage 6(young adulthood): intimacy verses isolation; intimacy involves ability to form a deep and respectful relationship; isolation occurs when one cannot establish or tolerate close feelings toward another
-Stage 7(middle adulthood): generativity verses stagnation; generativity: sense of inner competence resulting from success in work, marriage, parenthood, etc.; Stagnation: turning inward resulting from failure in work, marriage, parenthood, etc.
-Stage 8(older adulthood): ego integrity verses despair; results from life-review process; if it brings a sense of wholeness and fulfillment, then one has integrity; if there is a sense that one's life has been wasted and that now is too late to find fulfillment, one has despair
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
Level 1: Preconventional
Stage 1- obedience to avoid punishment;
cognitive pre-requisite: pre-operations
Stage 2- satisfy needs and gain rewards;
making deals with others; "you scratch my
back; I'll scratch yours;" cognitive
pre-requisite: concrete operations
Level 2: conventional; cognitive pre-requisite: beginning formal operations
Stage 3- "good boy-good girl;" moral decisions
based on approval and impressing others
Stage 4- "law and order;" obedience to
authority; no exceptions; things seen as black
and white- no shades of gray
Stage 4 1/2- transitional stage; relativistic; sees
problems in today's society, but does not know
what to do about them so does nothing; "Let
those who know what to do handle them; I
don't want to think about it."
Level 3: postconventional; cognitive pre-requisite: full formal operations
Stage 5- concerned with meeting the needs of
society; greatest good for the majority; can
make exceptions; sees shades of gray; tries
to change laws that do not fit society's needs
Stage 6- obedience to one's own conscience;
willing to suffer consequences for one's
decisions; lives by self-chosen ethical principles
Kubler-Ross' stages of dying
•Stage 1- denial; "no, it can't be true" reaction; may demand more tests & change doctors
•Stage 2- anger; "why me?" Reaction; resentment & envy; outbursts of temper
•Stage 3- bargaining; try to delay or postpone death in some way, usually by trying to make a bargain with God
•Stage 4- depression; reactive refers to current & past losses, whereas preparatory refers to impending losses & separation
•Stage 5- acceptance; period of peace; often devoid of emotions; more apt to reach this stage if they have had time to work through other stages & express their feelings; families may need more help & support in this stage than patients.
early adulthood (20-40 yrs)
3 major characteristics: physical & personal development; marriage & parenthood; jobs & careers; height of physical health & endurance in the '20s
middle adulthood (40-65 yrs)
Physical changes that signal end of youth; one can best adjust to the aging process by a balanced diet & appropriate exercise, as well as cognitive simulation. Success in jobs & careers is important to contentment in mid-life; job satisfaction peaks during middle-age; "empty nest" as last child leaves home
older adulthood (65+)
People living longer today; physical changes; health is an important issue; 80% of all elderly people have chronic health problems; internal organs cannot regain full efficiency after disease, shock, or other stress; mental & physical activity & proper nutrition help slow the aging process; adjustment to old age is more difficult for people who are forced to retire & those in poor health; must often confront loss of spouse; although they think about it more often than younger people, they fear death less.
Baumrind's child-rearing styles
-Authoritarian: controlling, may use punishment, "Because I said so!"
-Authoritative: warm, caring, discusses but has final say, sets limits
-Indulgent: child has control, very few restrictions
-Neglectful: parents uninvolved in children's lives
Rational Emotive Therapy
realize that your perception of an event, not the event itself, causes your emotional reaction
Social Readjustment Rating Scale
measures the amount of stress in a person's life
learned helplessness
may develop if one believes that he/she cannot control events
Type A people
Include a sense of urgency, competitiveness, & impatience; time conscious; try to do everything at once; may clench jaws or fists; sometimes referred to as the "coronary-prone behavior pattern"
Type B people
More "laid back" than type A's & usually handle stress better; have a lower chance of developing heart disease
Type C people
Pleasant but internalize negative emotions; linked to cancer
Selye's general adaptation syndrome
A pattern of reaction to stress
types of conflict
1.) approach- approach: making a choice between 2 equally-attractive alternatives, ex: deciding which of 2 job offers to accept
2.) approach- avoidance: a single goal that has both positive & negative consequences, such as marriage or a new job
3.) avoidance- avoidance: choosing between 2 negative outcomes, such as a baseball player caught between bases, or deciding whether to endure the pain of a toothache or go to the dentist
4.) double approach- avoidance: choosing between alternatives that contain both positive & negative consequences such as deciding whether to take a part-time job that pays well but has poor hours, or a job with good hours but poor pay
frustration
Occurs when one is unable to satisfy a motive
criteria for abnormality
1. Deviant-deviates from acceptable cultural norms
2. Maladaptive- interferes with effective functioning
3. Personal distress
symptoms of schizophrenia
Applies to a wide variety of disorders, of which distortion of reality seems to be a common symptom; unable to selectively filter out surrounding stimuli; may have delusions, hallucinations & inappropriate emotional reactions; may have a great deal of motor activity or may be catatonic
anxiety disorders
common elements: motor tension, hyperactivity, and apprehensive expectations and thoughts
-phobic disorder
-generalized anxiety disorder
-panic disorder
personality disorders
•A.) paranoid- tendency to interpret others' behavior as being deliberately threatening or demanding; persistent suspiciousness
•B.) antisocial personality- persistently violates rights of others & is in conflict with the law; experiences little or no guilt or anxiety
•C.) borderline- emotionally unstable, unpredictable, impulsive, & irritable
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