AP Comparative Govt: Authoritarian Regimes Iran, China, Russia

Terms in this set (151)

nation
The concept of state is closely related to a nation, a group
of people that are bound together by a common political identity.
nationalism
the sense of belonging and identity that distinguishes one nation from another.
multinational state
_____ _____ is one that contains more than one nation. The former Soviet Union is a good example of a _____ ______. It was divided into "soviet republics" that were based on nationality, such as the Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. When the country fell apart in 1991, it fell along ethnic boundaries into independent nation-states. Today Russia (one of the former soviet republics) remains a large multinational state that governs many ethnic groups.
Communism
advocates a political system in which all property is held in common, usually by the state.
Russian Political Culture: Eastern Orthodoxy
Early in its history, Russians cast their lot with the flourishing city of Constantinople, establishing trade routes in that direction, and adopting the Eastern Orthodox religion. As Constantinople's influence waned and the influence of Western Europe increased, Russia's orientation meant that it did not share the values generated by the European Renaissance, Reformation, Scientific Revolution, and Enlightenment. Instead of individualism, Russians came to value a strong state that could protect them from their geographic vulnerabilities. In contrast to Russian statism, the West developed a taste for civil society, or spheres of privacy free from control by the state. Eastern Orthodoxy also was inextricably linked to the state, so the principle of separation of church and state never developed. Even when the Communist state forbid its citizens to practice religion, the acceptance of government control remained.
Russian Political Culture: Geographic Setting
Geographically, Russia is the largest country in the world and encompasses many different ethnicities and climates. Its republics and regions border the Black Sea in the southwest, the Baltic Sea in the northwest, the Pacific to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and China to the south. Its borders touch many other nations with vastly different political cultures and customs. Russia is also one of the coldest countries on earth, partly because of northern latitude, but also because so many cities are inland. Ironically for a country of its size, warm water ports are few, and its history has been shaped by the desire to conquer countries that have blocked Russian access to the sea. Russia has many natural resources, including oil, gas, and timber, but much of it is locked in frozen Siberia, very difficult to extract. However, in recent years these resources have been developed, and have fueled significant economic growth
Russian Political Culture: Skepticism about Power
Despite their dependence on government initiative, Russian citizens can be surprisingly hostile toward their leadership. Mikhail Gorbachev found this out the hard way when he initiated glasnost- a new emphasis on freedom of speech and press - in the 1980s. He received torrents of complaints from citizens that almost certainly contributed to the breakup of the Soviet Union. Today surveys show that citizens have little faith in the political system, although, until recently, people seemed to have more confidence in Putin than in any other individual leaders or institutions. During his first two terms as president, Putin's
approval ratings remained between 70 and 80 percent and even
reached almost 90 percent in 2008, but no other public officials have had comparable approval rates, including governors of regions, army generals, Duma members, or the police. According to Russia's most respected polling outfit, the Levada Institute, Putin's popularity declined after the oil bust of 2008, but since 2011, his approval rating has still remained above 60 percent. The Russian people appear to have little confidence in nongovernmental leaders, such as entrepreneurs, bankers, and media personalities.
Russian Political Culture: Equality of Result (contrasted to equality of opportunity)
The Communist regime instilled in the Russian people an appreciation for equality, a value already strong in a country of peasants with similar living standards. Russian egalitarianism has survived the fall of the Soviet Union, and most Russians resent wealth and income differences. This "equality of result" is very different from western "equality of opportunity" that sees "getting ahead" as a sign of initiative, hard work, and talent. As a result, the Russian political culture is not particularly conducive to the development of capitalism.
Russian Political Culture: The Importance of Nationality
Even though cultural heterogeneity has almost always been characteristic of the Russian political culture, people tend to categorize others based on their nationality, and they often discriminate against groups based on long-held stereotypes. Russians generally admire the Baltic people for their "civility" and sophistication, but they sometimes express disdain for the Muslim-Turkic people of Central Asia. In return, governments in those areas have passed laws discouraging Russians from remaining within their borders. Anti-Semitism was strong in tsarist Russia, and today some nationalists blame Jews for Russia's current problems
Russian Legitimacy
In the earliest years of the 21st century, the legitimacy of the Russian government was at very low ebb, partly because the regime change was so recent, and partly because the change appeared to be a drastic departure from the past. However, there is growing evidence that the system has stabilized since Vladimir Putin was first elected president in 2000, and since then, Putin and his successor, Medvedev, retreated from democratic practices to reestablish some of the old authoritarianism from Russia's traditional political culture.
Historical Influences on Political Traditions: Slavophile v. Westernizer
In the mid-20th century, American diplomat George Kennan identified this conflicting set of political traditions as a major source of problems for Russia. The Slavophile ("lover of Slavs") tradition has led to a pride in Slavic customs, language, religion, and history that causes Russia to resist outside influence. This tendency to value isolation was challenged first by Tsar Peter the Great in the late 17th and early 18th century. He used the western model to "modernize" Russia with a stronger army, a navy, an infrastructure of roads and communication, a reorganized bureaucracy, and a "Window on the West." The window was St. Petersburg, a city built by Peter on newly conquered lands near the Baltic Sea. His efforts to build Russia's power were followed by those of Catherine the Great of the late 18th century, so that by the time of her death, Russia was seen as a major empire. However, their efforts set in place a conflict, since the affection for Slavic ways did not disappear with the changes.
Historical Influences on Political Traditions: Revolutions of the 20th century
The long, autocratic rule of the tsars suddenly and decisively came to an end in 1917 when V. I. Lenin's Bolsheviks seized power, and renamed the country the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Communist leaders replaced the tsars, and they ruled according to socialist principles, although the tendency toward absolute, centralized rule did not change. The old social classes, however, were swept away, and the new regime tried to blend elements of westernization (industrialization, economic development, and technological innovation) with those of the Slavophile (nationalism, resistance to western culture and customs). A second revolution occurred in 1991, when the U.S.S.R. dissolved and its fifteen republics became independent nations. The Russian Federation, born in that year, is currently struggling to replace the old regime with a new one, although many of the former republics have settled into authoritarianism.
Historical Influences on Political Traditions: Absolute, centralized rule
From the beginning, Russian tsars held absolute power that they defended with brutality and force. One reason for their tyranny was geography: the Russian plain was overrun and conquered by a series of invaders, including Huns, Vikings, and Mongols. The chaos caused by these takeovers convinced Russian leaders of the importance of firm, unchallenged leadership in keeping their subjects in control. Centralized power also characterized the Communist regime of the 20th century. Many observers believe that Vladimir Putin has steered the country back to this style of leadership.
Central Planning
Communist ideology led to political economies characterized by ______, in which the ownership of private property and the
market mechanism were replaced with the allocation of resources by the state bureaucracy.
Consensual political culture
___________ - Although citizens may disagree on
some political processes and policies, they tend generally to agree on how decisions are made, what issues should be addressed, and how problems should be solved. For example, citizens agree that elections should be held to select leaders, and they accept the election winners as their leaders. Once the leaders take charge, the problems they address are considered by most people to be appropriate for government to handle. By and large, a _________________ accepts both the legitimacy of the regime and solutions to major problems.
Conflictual political culture
____________ - Citizens in a ___________________are sharply divided, often on both the legitimacy of the regime and solutions to major problems. For example, if citizens disagree on something as basic as capitalism vs. communism, conflict
almost certainly will be difficult to avoid. Or if religious differences are so pronounced that followers of one religion do not accept an elected leader from another religion, these differences strike at the heart of legitimacy, and threaten to topple the regime. When a country is deeply divided in political beliefs and values over a long period of time, political subcultures may develop, and the divisions become so imbedded that the government finds it difficult to rule effectively.
Russia's Conflictual Political Culture
semi-presidential system
Some countries combine elements of the presidential and parliamentary systems, as is illustrated in Russia's 1993 Constitution. Although Russia is far from a democracy today, the Constitution clearly provides for a ____-_____ ______ where a prime minister coexists with a president who is directly elected by the people and who holds a significant degree of power.
authoritarian regimes
In this type of regime, decisions are made by political elites - those who hold political power - without much input from citizens. These regimes may be ruled by a single dictator, an hereditary monarch, a small group of religious clerics, or a single political party. The economy is generally tightly controlled by the political elite.
statism
The idea that the rights of the nation are supreme over the rights of the individuals who make up the nation.
political culture
_______ refers to the collection of political beliefs, values, practices, and institutions that the government is based on. For example, if a society values individualism, the government will generally reflect this value in the way that it is structured and in the way that it operates. If the government does not reflect basic political values of a people, it will have difficulty remaining viable.
Duma
The 450 members of the _____ are selected by popular election using a party-list voting system. Members serve for a term of four years, although starting with the 2012 election cycle, the term will be extended to five years.
Federation Council
The 166 member _______ represent the 83
recognized regional governments within the federation. Each regional government selects two members of the council. One representative of each region is selected by that region's governor with the consent of the regional legislature, while the other is directly elected by the regional legislature. There is no formal term limit for members of the ________.
Powers of the Duma
>- Consenting to the appointment of the Prime Minister
>- Hearing annual reports from the Government of the Russian Federation on the
results of its work, including on issues raised by the State Duma
>- Issuing votes of confidence on the Government
>- Appointing and dismissing the Chairman of the Central Bank of Russia
>- Appointing and dismissing the Chairman and half of the auditors of the Accounts
Chamber
>- Appointing and dismissing the Commissioner for Human Rights
>- Impeaching the president by a two-thirds majority
>- Adopting decrees by a majority vote of the total number of deputies of the State
Duma
Powers of the Federation Council
In addition to this important power, the Federation Council also has these additional powers:
>- Approving changes of borders within the Russian Federation
>- Approving presidential decrees invoking martial law
>- Approving presidential decrees of states of emergency
>- Deciding on the use of the armed forces outside the territory of the Russian Federation
>- Declaring the election of the president
>- Removing the president, following impeachment by the State Duma
>- Approving the president's nomination of judges of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, and of the Higher
Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation
~ Approving the president's nomination of the Attorney General
~ Appointing the Deputy Chairman and half the auditors of the Accounting Chamber
How the Federation Council and the Duma Interact
Most bills in Russia originate in the State Duma and, if passed there, are sent to the Federation Council for its approval. A majority vote is required for bills to pass the Federation Council. When the Council rejects a law passed by the State Duma, the two chambers are required to form a Conciliation Committee to form a compromise document, which is then voted on by both houses of the legislature. In addition, the State Duma may override the Federation Council's veto of legislation by passing a bill by a two-thirds majority.
Russian Civil Society
______________ is underdeveloped. For example, most Russians don't attend church on a regular basis, nor do they belong to sports or recreational clubs, literary or other cultural groups, charitable organizations, or labor unions. Only about 1% report belonging to a political party.
Since Putin's reelection in 2012, the government appears to be imposing new restrictions. During the Communist era Soviet authorities argued that only the party could and should represent the people's interests, and so state-sponsored organizations appeared in a state corporatist arrangement with the government clearly in control of channeling the voice of the people. The Russian Orthodox Church was brought tightly under control of the Communist Party. Since Putin 's reelection in 2012, nonprofit groups have come under particular pressure with new laws that severely restrict foreign financing and require them to register as "foreign agents." In addition, the definition of high treason has been expanded to include assisting foreign organizations.
corporatism
Modem ______ is a method through which business, labor, and/ or other interest groups bargain with the state over economic policy.
In its earliest form corporatism emerged as a way that authoritarian regimes tried to control the public by creating or recognizing organizations to represent the interests of the public. This practice makes the government appear to be less authoritarian, but in reality the practice eliminates any input from groups not sanctioned or created by the state. Only a handful of groups have the right to speak for the public, effectively silencing the majority of citizens in political affairs.
pluralism
A theory describing a political system in which all significant social interests (religion, unions, political parties, etc) freely compete with one another for influence over the government's policy decisions.
Nashi
a large youth movement created by Putin to support the government (example of corporatism)
The Troubled Caucasus Region
The map above shows many points of conflict both within the Russian Federation and outside its borders. Chechnya has long been an area of conflict, where many still support Chechen independence from Russia. Georgia, now an independent country, has separatist problems of its own in Abkhazia and South Ossetia, and Russia has supported those regions in their attempts to break away from Georgia. A root of the conflict is the variety of small cultural groups that have long inhabited
the area, and over the years hostilities have built up among them.
asymmetric federalism
When some territorial units enjoy more extensive powers than others relative to the central government.

Power has devolved unequally across Russia leaving some regions much stronger than others.
single-member districts
An electoral district from which one person is chosen by the voters for each elected office. This type of electoral system typically leads to legislatures dominated by two political parties.
proportional representation
A system of political representation in which seats are allocated to parties within multi-member constituencies, roughly in proportion to the votes each party receives. PR usually encourages the election to parliament of more political parties than single-member-district winner-take-all systems.
CCP
Chinese Communist Party
guanxi
The concept of _____ cannot be easily defined in English. It is deeply rooted in Chinese culture and influences how every aspect of Chinese society operates, including those related to government and politics. ______ describes a personal connection between two people that allows one to ask a favor of the other. ____ also describes a network of contacts which an
individual can ask to do a favor, or can call upon to exert influence on behalf of a third party. _____ can also describe the idea that the relationship between two people is such that they
needn't speak their needs for the other to take them into consideration before acting. No matter the formal structures in place, much decision making in China still occurs on the basis of ______.
democratic centralism
_______ is the system of internal political organization used in China. The term was first used to describe the Marxist/Leninist system used in the U.S.S.R. Under the theory of ______, members of the ruling party in a single-party state are allowed to
debate policy, but once a decision has been reached by majority vote, all members are expected to follow the decision. In the words of Vladimir Lenin, _______ requires "freedom of discussion, unity of action." In systems that employ ______, the government is usually subordinate to the party. This has been the case in China since the founding of the PRC.
Ethnic Cleavages
Although over 90% of people living within the People's Republic of China are Han Chinese, China must still deal with significant ethnic cleavages in some regions of the country. To address these cleavages, the Chinese government has set up five autonomous regions within the PRC. The five autonomous regions in the PRC are:
~ Tibet
~ Guangxi
~ Xinjiang
~ Inner Mongolia
~ Ningxia
Despite the theoretical autonomy of these regions, separatist movements operate within each of them. Both peaceful and violent protests are common in some of these regions. The government in Beijing frequently calls on the military to quell these protests.
Political Socialization in China
The CCP is the main agent of political socialization in China. The CCP is involved in nearly every official structure in Chinese society; from the media and schools to scout troops, and the CCP uses all of these structures to indoctrinate and educate the people of China in the socialist system of the country.
Political Party System in China
The PRC effectively operates under a single-party system. Unlike the other countries covered in this course, the PRC is run by the parallel structures of the CCP and the government. The CCP sets the ideological and policy agenda in the PRC and party members populate virtually all government positions of real authority. The CCP has ultimate control of many of the key agents of political socialization in China, including the media, schools, and the government. Although other political parties are allowed to exist, all legally operating parties in the PRC must be approved by the CCP. Parties that challenge the supremacy of the CCP rarely, if ever, gain official approval.
National People's Congress
In theory, the party's highest body is the _____________. In practice, the Party Congress is too large and meets too infrequently - once every five years - to exercise any real authority. Instead, it functions primarily as a "rubber stamp" of broad policy decisions made by smaller and more powerful party structures.
party general secretary
Traditionally, the nine-member Politburo Standing Committee holds the most power within the CCP, usually setting the direction of party policy. The Standing Committee of the Politburo holds weekly meetings chaired by the party general secretary. The _____________ is usually the single most powerful political figure in China.
Politburo
______ consists of 25 full members, including the members of the Politburo Standing Committee. The ______ consists of the key decision makers in China. Selects candidates for Central Committee membership before meetings of the National Party Congress.
Secretariat
_____ - the permanent bureaucratic body of the CCP. Administers party actions, provides staff support to the Politburo, and turns Politburo policies into rules and instructions for subordinate parts of the party apparatus.
Central Military Commission
__________ - although the chairman of the _________n of the PRC (the government) is technically commander-in-chief of the
Chinese military, the ________ of the CCP really controls military policy in the PRC.
Central Committee
The ___________ - consists of about 300 members chosen by the National Party Congress. Members all hold positions of significant power around the country. Theoretically, the ______ is the body that chooses the members of the Politburo, its standing committee, and the general secretary of the party. The ______ exercises the authority of the National Party Congress when that body is not in session, approving party policies. The ______ often plays a crucial role in party policy-making because it is the organ of the CCP in which true political debate between party elites occurs.
Discipline Inspection Commission
The _______________ - has the job of finding corruption within the party, enforcing standards of conduct (including ideological standards), and disciplines party members who do not follow the standards or engage in corruption.
People's Liberation Army (PLA)
The __________ is the unified land, sea, air, and missile forces of the PRC.
power
Politics is basically all about ____. Who has the power to make the decisions? How did ______holders get power? What challenges do leaders face from others - both inside and outside the country's borders- in keeping _____? So, as we look at different countries, we are not only concerned about the ins and outs of how the government works; we also look at how _____ is gained, managed, challenged, and maintained
government
leadership and institutions that make policy decisions for a country.
Social Cleavage
______ are divides withing a society which separate citizens into different groups whether t be on the basis of a political view, religious preference, or ethnic identity. The different sectors formed by these cleavages may merge to form political parties bases on these issues.
cross-cutting cleavages
These types of cleavages divide society into many potential groups that may conflict on one issue but cooperate on another, which tends to keep social conflict to more moderate levels.
coinciding cleavages
when every dispute aligns the same groups against each other, this type of cleavage is likely to be explosive.
Cleavages that consistently pit the same groups of people against each other, ex., when two people are of the same religion and ethnicity
electoral systems
the rules that decide how votes are cast, counted, and translated into seats in a legislature.
state
In today's world, power is territorially organized into _____, or countries, that control what happens within their borders.
German scholar Max Weber defined _____ as the organization that maintains a monopoly of violence over a territory. In other words, the _____ defines who can and cannot use weapons and force, and it sets the rules as to how violence is used. _____ often sponsor armies, navies, and/or air forces that legitimately use power and sometimes violence, but individual citizens are very restricted in their use of force.
institutions
States also include _________: stable, long lasting organizations that help to turn political ideas into policy. Common examples of _______ are bureaucracies, legislatures, judicial systems, and political parties. These institutions make states themselves long lasting, and often help them to endure even when leaders change.
Common characteristics of authoritarian regimes
• A small group of elites exercising power over the state
• Citizens with little or no input into selection of leaders and government decisions
• No constitutional responsibility of leaders to the public
• Restriction of civil rights and civil liberties
civil society
______ refers to voluntary organizations outside of the state that
help people define and advance their own interests. ______ is usually strong in liberal democracies where individual freedoms are valued and protected. The organizations that compose it may represent class, religious, or ethnic interests, or they may cross them, creating strong bonds among people that exist outside of government control.
Factors that encourage legitimacy in both democratic and authoritarian regimes
• Economic well-being- Citizens tend to credit their government with economic prosperity, and they often blame government for economic hardships, so political legitimacy is reinforced by economic well-being.
• Historical tradition/longevity - If a government has been in place for a long time, citizens and other countries are more likely to view it as legitimate.
• Charismatic leadership - As Max Weber said, charisma is a powerful factor in establishing legitimacy, whether the country is democratic or totalitarian.
• Nationalism/shared political culture - If citizens identify strongly with their nation, not just the state, they are usually more accepting of the legitimacy of the government.
• Satisfaction with the government's performance/responsiveness: Chances are that the government is a legitimate one if citizens receive benefits from the government, if the government wins wars, and/or if citizens are protected from violence and crime.
political institutions
structures of a poltical system that carry out the work of governing-legislatures, executives, judicial systems, bureaucracies, and armies
Cleavages and political institutions
How are cleavages expressed in the political system? For example, is political party membership based on cleavages? Do political elites usually come from one group or another? Do these cleavages block some groups from fully participating in government?
Iranian Sovereignty lies in
God (Allah) and the Iranian people (elections)
Political Participation in Iran
Citizens of Iran can join political parties that are approved by the government, run for elective office if approved by the government, petition the government on a limited range of issues, form interest groups if they are acceptable to the government, and vote for some government officials from lists of government-approved candidates.
theocracy
a government ruled strictly by religion
Hassan Rouhani
current Iranian President, seen as a moderate more willing to engage the West,
civil society in Iran
Since the revolution, Iran has been slow to develop a functioning civil society. Government insistence that all activities in Iran are in accordance with Islamic teachings is largely responsible for this fact.
Revolution of 1979
events involving overthrow of Iran's monarchy and its replacement with an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution
Ayatollah Khomeini
Iranian religious leader of the Shiites; when Shah Pahlavi's regime fell Khomeini established a new constitution giving himself supreme powers (1900-1989)
Assembly of Religious Experts
elects and can dismiss the Supreme Leader
Majils
"represents the nation"
enacts ordinary laws (not sharia)
investigates and supervises affairs of state
approves or removes cabinet members
appoints half the members of the Guardian Council
from a list presented by the chief judge
can approve budgets, foreign loans, treaties
Expediency Council
resolves conflicts between Majlis and Guardian Council
meets in secret
initiates legislation
Supreme Leader
* is the "vital link" between branches of government
* determines the "interests of Islam"
can dismiss the president
* is the commander-in-chief of the military and can appoint and dismiss officers
* nominates and can remove judges and prosecutors
* appoints half the members of the Guardian Council
* appoints the Minister of Justice
* appoints Imam Jum'ehs at principal city mosques
* appoints the director of national radio and television
* directs a staff of over 600
President
administers government
presents annual budget to Majlis
supervises economic matters
proposes legislation to Majlis
is chair of the National Security Council
appoints vice president(s) and cabinet (except Justice Minister)
appoints local governors and mayors
Elected Leaders in Iran
President
Majlis
Assembly of Religious Experts
Unelected Supreme Leader
ExpediencyCouncil
Guardian Council
Judiciary
Cabinet
Directors of Bonyads
Revolutionary GuardOfficers
Unelected leaders of Iran
Supreme Leader
Expediency Council
Guardian Council
Judiciary
Revolutionary Guard Officers
Nuclear Weapons and Iran
Iran is facing international scrutiny over the possibility that it is trying to develop nuclear weapons. Although Iran has stated that it wishes to develop nuclear technology for peaceful purposes, as is its right under international law, it has also stated that it is not fair that five powers have the legal right to nuclear weapons while the rest of the world does not. This, despite the fact that Iran is a party to the NNPT (Nuclear NonProliferation Treaty), which allows the five permanent members of the UN Security Council to legally possess nuclear weapons, while banning the further spread of nuclear weapons.
Union of political and religious authority is a central component of Iranian political culture
Union of political and religious authority- From the days
of the ancient Persians, political and religious leaders were often one and the same. However, starting with the rule of the Qajars (1794-1925), the two types of authority were separated, only to be brought back together by the Revolution of 1979.
Shiism and sharia are central components of Iranian political culture
Shiism and sharia as central components - Today almost
90% of all Iranians identify themselves as Shiite, a fact that
links citizens to the government, which is officially a theocracy. Islamic law, the sharia, is an important source of legitimacy that the modem government particularly emphasizes.
Strong sense of Iranian nationalism is a central component of Iranian political culture
Public opinion surveys show that Iranians in general have a stronger sense of national identity than do citizens of most Arab countries. As a result, they are more likely to identify themselves as Iranians first and Muslims second. Their Persian roots encourage the perception that Iran is a distinct culture, and pride in being Iranian is quite pronounced.
Pragmatic conservatives (Iran)
__________ are clergy who favor liberal economic policies that encourage foreign trade, free markets, and direct foreign investment. wealth redistribution and price controls. President Hassan Rouhani is often described as pragmatic.
cleavages
when national, ethnic, linguistic, and religious systematically affect political allegiances and policies,
Bases of social cleavages
What mix of social classes, ethnic and racial groups, religions, and languages does a country have? How deep are these cleavages, and to what degree do they separate people from one another (form social boundaries)? Which of these cleavages appear to have the most significant impact on the political system?
Iranian Social Class Cleavages
Social class - The peasantry and lower middle class are sources of support for the regime, partly because they have benefited from the government's social programs that have provided them with electricity and paved roads (patron-client)
However, middle and upper-middle class people are largely secularized, and so they tend to be highly critical of the clerics and their control of the society. (Neda Agha-Soltan and her family)
jurist's guardianship
Together the supreme leader and the Guardian Council exercise the principle of jurist's guardianship, making sure that the democratic bodies always adhere to Islamic beliefs and laws.
market-based socialism
initiated in China after Mao's death, allows for a significant infusion of capitalism into the system
civil servant
Bureaucrat; A person who works for the government
Factionalism
The splitting of a group into factions; Conflict between factions
Conservative party faction
Conservatives - Although all factions supported economic reform, conservatives worried that perhaps the power of the party and the central government has eroded too much. They were particularly concerned about any movement toward democracy and generally support crackdowns on organizations
and individuals who act too independently. Their most prominent
leader has been Li Peng, the former premier and chair of
the National People's Congress. His retirement in 2003 left
this faction with less influence than it had before.
Liberal party faction
Liberals- This faction went out of power after the 1989 Tiananmen Square incident, but its members were generally more accepting of political liberties and democratic movements than are members of the other factions. They supported economic and political reform. The two most famous leaders of this faction were Hu Yuobang - whose death started the protests in 1989- and Zhao Ziyang- the Premier and General Secretary
who was ousted for being too sympathetic with the Tiananmen
protestors. Hu Yuobang was the mentor of China's current
president, Hu Jintao, but during his presidency he showed little
support for democratic movements.
Chinese Communist Youth League ("tuanpai") faction
This faction is led by former President Hu Jintao, whose allies come from the CCYL, the party's nation-wide organization for youth aged 14-28. Some analysts characterize the tuanpai faction as promoters of the concerns of the urban and rural poor, but others see few ideological commonalities among its leaders.
Iranian legitimacy
As is true in China, the revolutionary credentials of the leadership are an important source of legitimacy for the current Iranian regime. The use of competitive elections in choosing many key government officials further bolsters that legitimacy.
Sovereignty lies in
God (Allah)
Level of Transparency
Although some of the decisions of the Iranian government are made in a public way, the decisions of the Supreme Leader are open to little public scrutiny. In addition, questions remain about the independence of the judiciary as well as the inappropriate use of prosecutorial power for political ends.
Cleavages - Reformers v. conservatives
A fundamental cleavage in the political culture since the founding of the Republic has to do with a debate about the merits of a theocracy v. a democracy. The conservatives want to keep the regime as it is, under the control of clerics and sharia law, and the reformers would like to see more secularization and democracy. Most reformers do not want to do away with the basic principles of an Islamic state, but they display a wide array of opinions about how much and where secularization and democracy should be infused into the system.
"monopoly on violence."
Max Weber provided one of the most
famous early attempts at defining what a state truly was when he claimed it had a "monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force".
military rule
In states where legitimacy and stability are in question, and especially when violence is threatened, the military may intervene directly in politics, since it often is the only organization that can solve the problems.
____ ____ usually lacks a specific ideology, and the leaders often have no source of authority, so they join forces with the state bureaucracy to form an authoritarian regime.
Traditional legitimacy
1. tradition should determine who rules and how.
2. Most monarchies are based on traditional legitimacy, and their authority is symbolized through crowns, thrones, scepters, and/or robes of a particular color or design.
3. Traditional legitimacy may also be shaped by religion, so that political practices remind people of deep-seated religious beliefs. Many leaders in the Middle East today base authority
on their ability to interpret sharia (traditional religious) law.
Charismatic legitimacy
1. ____ _____ is based on the dynamic personality
of an individual leader or a small group.
2. _____ ______ is notoriously short-lived because it usually does not survive its founder.
Rational-legal legitimacy
1. __________ is based neither on tradition nor on the force of a single personality, but rather on a system of well-established laws and procedures.
2. This type of legitimacy, then, is highly institutionalized, or anchored by strong institutions (such as legislatures, executives, and/or judiciaries) that carry over through generations of individual leaders.
3. People obey leaders because they believe in the rules that brought them to office, and because they accept the concept of a continuous state that binds them together as a nation.
Factors that encourage legitimacy in both democratic and authoritarian regimes are:
• Economic well-being
• Historical tradition/longevity
• Charismatic leadership
• Nationalism/shared political culture
• Satisfaction with the government's performance/responsiveness
sources of legitimacy
1. Charisma of a leader
2. Belief systems, ideologies, and founding myths
3. Tradition (including monarchy and birthright)
4. Revolutions
5. Religion
6. Constitutions
7. Rule of law and/or rational legal authority
8. Competitive elections
9. Distinct aspects of a country's political culture
failed state
States in which legitimate authority has crumbled, bureaucracies are starved of resources, government programs are poorly coordinated, police fail to uphold the law and instead act in a predatory manner towards the population, armed paramilitaries proliferate, because the state's monopoly on the means of violence had been broken
persuasion (as a tool of power)
A phenomenon that occurs when a citizen's attitudes or beliefs are influenced by a communication from a political leader, political party, intereste group, etc..
leadership (as a tool of power)
Ability of a political leader, interest group, nation-state, etc to influence citizens toward the achievement of goals and results without the use of punitive actions.
coercion (as a tool of power)
individuals brought together by a ruler who imposes authority and monopolizes power security through domination
federal state
In a ____________ there is an official legal constitutional division of powers between the central government and the regional governments, in which certain powers belong to each. The regional governments are permanently established as part of the regime, and have a defined role to play that may not be revoked without major constitutional reform.
confederation
A _________________ is one in which the central government is not truly sovereign over the members (the regional governments). Rather, the regional governments act as sovereign states, and choose to cooperate with one another within the framework of a confederation on a specific topic, such as defense or foreign affairs, while maintaining their local sovereignty.
Transparency
__________ is about shedding light on rules, plans, processes and actions. It is knowing why, how, what, and how much. Transparency ensures that public officials, civil servants, managers, board members and business people act visibly and understandably, and report on their activities. And it means that the general public can hold them to account. It is the surest way of guarding against corruption, and helps increase trust in the people and institutions on which our futures depend.
clientalism
An unequal system of exchanging resources and favours based on an exploitative relationship between a wealthier and/or more powerful 'patron' and a less wealthy and weaker 'client'.

a process where the state co-opts members of the public by providing specific benefits or favors to a person or small group in return for public support
NGO's
an organization that is neither a part of a government nor a conventional for-profit business. Usually set up by ordinary citizens. may be funded by governments, foundations, businesses, or private persons. Examples include - Doctors Without Borders, Red Cross, Black Lives Matter, The Gates Foundation, Religious Missionary movements.
Political Culture
_______ refers to the collection of political beliefs, values,
practices, and institutions that the government is based on. For example, if a society values individualism, the
government will generally reflect this value in the way that it is structured and in the way that it operates. If the
government does not reflect basic political values of a people, it will have difficulty remaining viable.
GONGOS
____________s are, as the acronym suggests, ____________________. These organizations typically profess to be independent entities and may hide behind innocuous sounding names that suggest that their chief mission would be human rights, legal reform, or the protection of minorities. In truth, their goal is to legitimize government policy, soak up foreign funding from genuine NGOs, and confuse the public about who is in the right, the government or its critics.
political purge
-involve removing opponents from party leadership or positions of power, or rounding up whole categories of people. Almost invariably accuse their victims of subversive activity or treason.
Vladmir Putin - Centralization of Power
Putin's time in power has been characterized by a series of reforms that have recentralized control into Moscow from the federal system of Russia's constitution, and that have managed and limited democracy to ensure his hold on power.

• CREATION OF FEDERAL SUPER-DISTRICTS. In 2000, responding to terrorist attacks believed to have originated in the Russian republic of Chechnya, Putin created seven
Super-Districts. The president-appointed leadership of these districts supervises the policymaking of local authorities, striking down any policies they find to be problematic.
• POWER TO REMOVE GOVERNORS. The 1993 Constitution gave voters the power to directly elect their own governors in their local region, but the Constitution was amended to allow the president the power to remove a governor if that governor would not conform local law to the Constitution (or perhaps the president's interpretation of the Constitution).
• POWER TO APPOINT GOVERNORS. Another change was made in 2004 to end direct election of governors altogether. Now the president may nominate an appointee as governor, upon confirmation of the local legislature.
• MANAGED ELECTIONS. The 2004, 2008, and 2012 presidential elections all exhibited signs of the state heavily influencing the outcome, if not fully "rigging" the election, through fraud or sham ballot counts. Many candidates who attempted to run were "disqualified" by the electoral commission due to excessive numbers of "fraudulent" or "improper" signatures on petitions or paperwork, or other technicalities. The candidates left to oppose Putin or Dmitri Medvedev on the ballot were highly unlikely to truly challenge them for victory. Opposition candidates have also found it very difficult to organize rallies or speak on the broadcast airwaves without experiencing harassment and intimidation by authorities..
• EXTENDING THE PRESIDENTIAL TERM. The 1993 Constitution called for a president to serve no more than two consecutive four-year terms. Putin honored that requirement by choosing not to stand for election in 2008, but essentially appointed a successor in Dmitri Medvedev, who in turn appointed Putin as his prime minister from 2008 to 2012. Putin continued exercising most of his presidential powers informally from this post, and the Duma changed the presidential term to six years during this time. Putin unsurprisingly announced he would run for president again in 2012, and Medvedev did not stand to challenge him as the incumbent president.
Formal Powers of the President of Russia
• APPOINTMENT OF THE PRIME MINISTER AND THE CABINET - The president may appoint
a prime minister with the consent of a majority of the Duma. The Duma has no such similar c·ontrol over the president regarding Cabinet ministers or other heads of agencies.
• LEGISLATIVE POWERS: The president may draft bills and submit them to the legislature
for their consideration, and he may sign or veto any bills passed by both houses.
*• ISSUING DECREES WITH THE FORCE OF LAW: presidents control the policies of the state
through decrees issued to their Cabinet ministers, which act as the law of the land. The Duma today has very little it can do as a check against this power.*

• SUSPENSION OF LOCAL LAWS: The president may suspend a law or regulation in one of Russia's regional governments if he believes it is contrary to the Russian Constitution, laws or treaties of the Russian Federation, or a violation of human rights.

• NOMINATION: The president nominates candidates for the Federation Council to be approved or rejected by the regional legislatures. He also nominates judges to serve on the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, and the Supreme Arbitration Court with approval of the Federation Council.
• PARDONS AND REPRIEVES: The president may grant a pardon or a reprieve for any person under federal law. He does not have this power over crimes at the regional level.
• FOREIGN POLICY: The president is empowered as Russia's chief voice in foreign affairs. He determines Russia's position in issues of international affairs, negotiates and ratifies
treaties, and appoints and recalls Russia's diplomatic representatives.
co-optation
1. The process by which individuals are brought into a beneficial relationship with the state, making them dependent on the state for certain rewards.
2. The blurring of lines between the state and a special interest group
NASHI
The largest Russian political youth movement that supports the government and organizes mass marches in support of Putin.

NASHI is an example of corporatism because the Russian state gives Nashi access to influence state policymaking, but other organizations that are critical of the state (independent trade unions, political clubs, or other independent civil society organizations) are banned from participating in the Russian political system.
United Russia
The political party led by Russian president Vladmir Putin
illiberal democracy (Russia)
Russia's system of managed elections, among similar systems in other states, led to the creation of a new term in Comparative Politics: __________________________

Like liberal democracies, illiberal regimes hold elections, and the votes are counted accurately, with the winning candidates duly taking office and exercising political
power.

What makes them illiberal is everything leading up to election day. Significant restrictions exist on whether candidates are able to freely compete for office or not. Restrictions in the media prevent opposition candidates from being able to communicate their message and
persuade voters to take a chance on them.

Illiberal democracies are not really democracies,
in the end, since those in power are essentially able to use the state to protect their place in power, meaning the fundamental feature of democracy, the power of voters to hold a government accountable and remove it by ballot, doesn't really seem to exist.
Dominant Party System
Russia can be characterized as a clear example of a __________________________, meaning United Russia acts as a party of power, existing not to implement a particular ideological agenda, but rather to secure and maintain power for its members.
Civil Society in China
An important new development is the growth of civil society - the appearance of private organizations that do not directly challenge the authority of the state but focus on social problems, such as the environment,
AIDS, and legal reform.
Activists had virtually no say in the Chinese political system until the 1990s when Beijing allowed non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) to register with the government. Today China has thousands of NGOs, ranging from ping-pong clubs to environmentalist groups.
Anti-corruption campaign under Xi Jinping
A far-reaching campaign against corruption began in China in 2012. The campaign is the largest organized anti-graft effort in the history of Communist rule in China.

Upon taking office, Xi vowed to crack down on "tigers and flies", that is, high-level officials and local civil servants alike. Most of the officials investigated were removed from office and faced accusations of bribery and abuse of power, although the range of alleged abuses varied widely. As of 2016, the campaign has 'netted' over 120 high-ranking officials, including about a dozen high-ranking military officers, several senior executives of state-owned companies, and five national leaders. More than 100,000 people have been indicted for corruption. The campaign is part of a much wider drive to clean up malfeasance within party ranks and shore up party unity. It has become an emblematic feature of Xi Jinping's political brand.
Ethnic Cleavages in China
Although over 90% of people living within the People's Republic of China are Han Chinese, China must still deal with significant ethnic cleavages in some regions of the country. To address these cleavages, the Chinese government has set up five autonomous regions within the PRC. The five autonomous regions in the PRC are:
~ Tibet
~ Guangxi
~ Xinjiang
~ Inner Mongolia
~ Ningxia
Despite the theoretical autonomy of these regions, separatist movements operate within each of them. Both peaceful and violent protests are common in some of these regions. The government in Beijing frequently calls on the military to quell these protests.
party-state
China is a _________, meaning that because the Chinese Communist Party is entrenched as the central institution governing the state, practices within the Party determine how government works, and government institutions' roles, powers, and responsibilities change as dynamics within the Party change. The chart illustrates the parallel nature of the Party structure and the state structure.

Members in the Communist Party structure at each level typically serve simultaneously in either military or state institutions at parallel levels. For example, the current general secretary of the Communist Party is Xi Jinping, whq serves concurrently as president of the People's Republic of China (a state institution), and as chairman of the Central Military Commission (a military institution).
Structure of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
The power is most concentrated in the inner group of central leaders at the top of the national Party, the standing committee, which chooses one of their members to act as general secretary of the Communist Party.
CCP - Concentration of Power
The power is most concentrated in the inner group of central leaders at the top of the national Party, the standing committee, which chooses one of their members to act as general secretary of the Communist Party. The general secretary recently has served concurrently as president of the People's Republic, and as the chairman of the Central Military Commission. All three of these posts are currently occupied by Xi Jinping, chosen as general secretary in 2012, and then chosen as president by the National People's Congress in 2013.
"one party, two coalitions"
China is a one-party state in which the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) monopolises power. The party leadership, however, is not a monolithic group. Its members do not all share the same ideology, political association, socioeconomic background, or policy preferences.
In fact, two main political factions or coalitions within the CCP leadership are currently competing for power, influence and control over policy initiatives.
The Elitist Faction (Sometimes called Princelings)
The elitist coalition tends to represent business interests,
including entrepreneurs and the rising middle class of China's affuent coastal regions.

Princelings come from an aristocracy of families with revolutionary credentials from the days of Mao Zedong. Their policy preferences are not always clear: some have been big beneficiaries of China's economic reforms, using their political connections and Western education to build lucrative business careers.
The Populist Faction
The populists are dominated by the "tuanpai" -- politicians
who cut their teeth in the Chinese Communist Youth League, the party's nation-wide organization for youth aged 14-28 to study and promote communism.

The populist faction tends to promote an agenda representing the concerns of the urban and rural poor, including migrants and farmers.
Tianducheng (Chinese Paris)
"Chinese Paris" The relatively deserted city illustrates the corruption of the CCP along with the unprecedented overinvestment/construction bubble that the CCP relied on to inflate China's overall GDP (Economic Growth)
Chinese Factionalism
The Chinese Communist Party is broadly divided between
informal "elitist" and "populist" coalitions

Other analysts conceive of the split in different terms, such as between liberal-minded reformist and conservative hard-liner
Elected and Unelected Iranian Leaders
Has the Supreme Leader ever been removed from power?
NO, The Supreme Leader is chosen by the Assembly of Religious Experts, and can also be removed
from office by the Assembly of Religious Experts- although this has never been tested!
Powers of the Iranian Supreme Leader
• dismiss the president or members of the Guardian Council for any reason.
• command all branches of the Iranian military.
• declare war and peace.
• appoint administrators and judges at all levels of Iranian government.
• choose six of the twelve members of the Guardian Council.
• appoint heads of all state-owned enterprises, including media outlets.
Who is more powerful? The Iranian President or the Supreme Leader?
The Supreme Leader is considered the chief jurist, the leading interpreter of Islamic law (the Shari'ah) for
the Shia people (majority Islamic sect in Iran). The Supreme Leader is vested with real and significant powers, far greater than the head of government, the president.
The Majlis
______ is directly elected by Iranian voters every four years, after candidates are vetted by the Guardian Council. The Majlis acts as Iran's unicameral legislative assembly, though its laws must keep the approval of the Guardian Council. The Majlis has the power to:
• introduce and pass legislation (although most is proposed by the president).
• approve the six members of the Guardian Council nominated by the Chief Judge.
• investigate corruption and misconduct in the bureaucracy and judiciary.
• approve the president's choices for Cabinet, and remove Cabinet members.
• approve the budget devised by the president.
President Hassan Rouhani
-Iranian pres since 2013; considered more moderate, better for US interests than predecessor; has sad he wants to repair Iran relationships w/ international community and recalibrate nation's diplomatic goal
The president of Iran
• elected by voters every four years and can serve up to two terms.
• Presidential candidates must be approved by the Guardian Council in order to appear on the ballot. The president is the head of government, possessing many administrative powers, but his actions are always under the shadow of the Supreme Leader, who may dismiss him from office at any moment he chooses.

The president has the power to:
• devise the budget for approval of the Majlis.
• propose legislation to the Majlis.
• nominate Cabinet members for approval of the Majlis.
• chair meetings of the Cabinet, the National Security Council, and the Supreme Council
of the Cultural Revolution.
• send and receive foreign ambassadors.
The Guardian Council
comprised of twelve men, six of whom are clerics chosen by the Supreme leader, and six of whom are lawyers nominated by the Chief Judge (who is himself
appointed by the Supreme Leader), and confirmed by the Majlis.

They have the power to:
• reject any law passed by the Majlis if it is contradictory to the constitution or principles of Islam, and send it back for correction.
• reject candidates for the presidency or Majlis based on their interpretation of the qualifications in the constitution.
• administer a test and interview to candidates for the Assembly of Religious Experts, and determine what "threshold" will be applied for allowing candidates on the ballot or not.
non-state actors
International actors that are not states. They include international organizations, NGO's, multinational corporations, and individuals.
The Iranian Green Movement
The Iranian Green Movement refers to a political movement that arose after the 2009 Iranian presidential election, in which protesters demanded the removal of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad from office.
secularization
the belief that religion and government should be separated.
Pahlavi
Former shah of Iran, "Puppet Shah", Pro-Western led to Islamic revolution
Unelected Leaders in Iran
Supreme Leader
Expediency Council
Guardian Council
Judiciary
Cabinet
Revolutionary Guard Officers
Key Social Cleavages
Religious, Ethnic, Regional, Reformist/Conservative, Rich/Poor
Cleavages - Ethnicity
Although a majority of Iranians are ethnically Persian, Iran is actually ethnically diverse. The breakdown of the population by ethnicity is as follows: Persian 51%, Azeri 24%, Gilaki and Mazandarani 8%, Kurd 7%, Arab 3%, Lur 2%, Baloch 2%, Turkmen 2%, other 1%. Iran's main ethnic minorities, especially the Azeris, Balochs, and Kurds continue to struggle against the Iranian government's failure to uphold their economic, social, and cultural rights as well as their civil and political rights.
Cleavages - Religion
Although 98% of the Iranian population is Muslim, religious tensions have a significant impact on the Iranian political landscape. The official religion in Iran is Shi'a Islam,
specifically the Twelver Ja'fari school of Shi'a Islam. Yet, the constitution requires that all other schools of Islamic thought be given full respect. The Iranian constitution also recognizes three historically present religious minorities - Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians. The largest non-
Muslim religious minority in Iran, the Baha'i, is not officially recognized.
Cleavages - social class
The peasantry and lower middle class are sources of support for the regime, partly because they have benefited from the government's social programs that have provided them with electricity and paved roads. However, middle and upper-middle class people are largely secularized, and so they tend to be highly critical of the clerics and their control of the society. Many middle-class people have not fared well economically during the years since the Republic was founded. As a result, their cultural and political views of secularism are reinforced by their economic problems, creating discontent and opposition to the regime.
Cleavages - Pragmatic conservatives v. radical clerics
The complicated set of cleavages in Iran is made more complex by distinct divisions among the clergy that have led to many important disagreements at the top levels of policymaking. Pragmatic conservatives are clergy who favor liberal economic policies that encourage foreign trade, free markets, and direct foreign investment. They base their points of view on strong personal ties to middle-class merchants (bazaaris) and rural landowners
who have long supported mosques and religious activities.
Conservatives argue that private property and economic
inequality are protected under Islamic law. They are generally willing to tum over economic management to liberally inclined technocrats. Radicals are more numerous among younger and more militant clerics, and they call for measures to enhance social justice, especially in terms of providing welfare benefits to Iran's poor. Radicals generally endorse state-sponsored wealth redistribution and price controls.
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
He was elected as Iran's President in 2005. He was a religious conservative who supported the system of ruling clerics. Main ideas were stamping out corruption and providing aid to the poor. He also strongly defended Iran's right to a nuclear program.
ethnic cleavage
this type of social cleavage is clearly the most divisive and explosive cleavages in countries at all levels of development.
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