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AP Psychology Midterm Review

Terms in this set (353)

the science of behavior and mental processes

The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should therefore rely on experimentation and observation

Critical Thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

A now defunct theory that specific mental abilities and characteristics, ranging from memory to the capacity for happiness, are localized in specific regions of the brain and can be revealed based on various lumps and indents on the skull

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience on them

An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind

A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.

A specialist that works in psychiatry (a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy.

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

Applied Research

Scientific research that seeks to solve practical problems

American Psychological Association

The professional organization that aims to advance psychology as a science and profession and promotes health, education, and human welfare

Neuropsychobiological Approach

The approach taken by various scientists that seek to explain things (illnesses etc.) by looking at the biology and basic psychology of the brain

Cognitive Approach

The approach taken by various scientists that seek to explain things (illnesses etc.) by looking at those who perform "self-talks" or self-defeating thinking and seeking to change that the various forms of psychotherapy

Behavioral Approach

The approach taken by various scientists that seek to explain things (illnesses etc.) by looking at the behavior of a person and applying that to wanted or unwanted behaviors

Psychodynamic Approach

The approach taken by various scientists that seek to explain things (illnesses etc.) by looking at how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior

Humanistic Approach

The approach taken by various scientists that seek to explain things (illnesses etc.) by looking at and emphasizing personal human growth and the potential for such

Sociocultural Approach

The approach taken by various scientists that seek to explain things (illnesses etc.) by looking at how various situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

Evolutionary Approach

The approach taken by various scientists that seek to explain things (illnesses etc.) by looking at how we have evolved and how factors through evolution could have caused various factors today

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Dependent Variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the independent variable that may produce an effect in the experiment

Operational Definition

A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

In an experiment, the group that is NOT exposed to the treatment

Experimental Controls

This is an experiment or observation designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the single independent variable. This increases the reliability of the results, often through a comparison between control measurements and the other measurements. Scientific controls are a part of the scientific method.

An English naturalist and geologist, best known for his contributions to evolutionary theory. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors, and in a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding.

a German philosopher and experimental psychologist. An early pioneer in experimental psychology and founder of psychophysics, he inspired many 20th century scientists and philosophers.

A German physician, psychologist, physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today as one of the founding figures of modern psychology. He noted psychology as a science apart from biology and philosophy, was the first person to ever call himself a Psychologist. He is widely regarded as the "father of experimental psychology". In 1879, Wundt founded the first formal laboratory for psychological research at the University of Leipzig. This marked psychology as an independent field of study. By creating this laboratory he was able to explore the nature of religious beliefs, identify mental disorders and abnormal behavior, and find damaged parts of the brain. In doing so, he was able to establish psychology as a separate science from other topics. He also formed the first journal for psychological research in 1881.

Edward Titchener

A British psychologist who studied under Wilhelm Wundt for several years. He is best known for creating his version of psychology that described the structure of the mind; structuralism. He created the largest doctoral program in the United States (at the time) after becoming a professor at Cornell University.

G. Stanley Hall

A pioneering American psychologist and educator. His interests focused on childhood development and evolutionary theory. Hall was the first president of the American Psychological Association.

In creating psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst, this man developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association (in which patients report their thoughts without reservation and in whichever order they spontaneously occur) and discovered transference (the process in which patients displace onto their analysts feelings derived from their childhood attachments), establishing its central role in the analytic process. Also developed new ideas about sexuality such as the Oedipus Complex.

An American philosopher and psychologist who was also trained as a physician. The first educator to offer a psychology course in the United States, James was one of the leading thinkers of the late nineteenth century and is believed by many to be one of the most influential philosophers the United States has ever produced, while others have labelled him the "Father of American psychology."

An American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism. Watson promoted a change in psychology through his address, Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it, which was given at Columbia University in 1913. Through his behaviorist approach, Watson conducted research on animal behavior, child rearing, and advertising. In addition, he conducted the controversial "Little Albert" experiment which demonstrated classical conditioning in humans.

He invented the operant conditioning chamber and pioneered the idea of operational conditioning. He was a firm believer of the idea that human free will was actually an illusion and any human action was the result of the consequences of that same action. If the consequences were bad, there was a high chance that the action would not be repeated; however if the consequences were good, the actions that led to it would be reinforced. He innovated his own philosophy of science called radical behaviorism, and founded his own school of experimental research psychology—the experimental analysis of behavior.

A Prague-born psychologist who was one of the three founders of Gestalt psychology

an American railroad construction foreman remembered for his improbable survival of an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, and for that injury's reported effects on his personality and behavior over the remaining 12 years of his life.

An approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of psychology.

Observer Effect

Tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed

Tendency of observers to see what they expect to see

Confirmation Bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Representative Sample

A selected segment that very closely parallels the larger population being studied on relevant characteristics.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Naturalistic Observations

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Experiments (lab/field)

Field experiments are more naturalistic, people react more naturally but it is harder to control for other outside influences. Lab experiments allow for much more control over various factors, but are often less realistic.

A single individual is studied intensely to examine a problem or issue relevant to that person, usually involving something that is normally unethical, however, because of circumstances must be taken advantage of

Psychological Testing/Psychometrics

The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

A systematic method for collecting data from respondents including questionnaires, face- to- face or telephone interviews, or a combination of these.

Correlational Studies

A study that demonstrates the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well one factor predicts the other

Longitudinal Studies

Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.

Cross-Sectional Studies

A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

A measure of center in a set of numerical data, computed by adding the values in a list and then dividing by the number of values in the list; the average

A measure of center in a set of numerical data. The value appearing at the center of a sorted version of the list - or the mean of the two central values if the list contains an even number of values.

Most common number in a set of data

Distance between highest and lowest scores in a set of data.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Tells how many standard deviations a value is from the mean

A graph of vertical bars representing the frequency distribution of a set of data.

Frequency Distribution

A summary chart, showing how frequently each of the various scores in a set of data occurs

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

Inferential Statistics

These help researchers decide how confident they can be in judging that the results observed are not due to chance (T-test, Chi-square test)

Significant Difference

Two results are only significantly different if their difference is much larger than the estimated error.

Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

The division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles

Autonomic System

The part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs

Sympathetic System

Part of the Autonomic System that arouses the body

Parasympathetic System

Part of the Autonomic System that calms the body

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Endocrine system

The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Left Hemisphere

This half of the brain generally specializes in analysis, calculation, problem solving, verbal communication, interpretation, language, reading & writing. It receives info and controls opposite of the body.

Right Hemisphere

This half of the brain specializes in perception of physical environment, art, nonverbal communication, music & spiritual aspects. It receives information from and controls the opposite side of the body.

Corpus Callosum

A thick band of nerve fibers that connects large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemispheres.

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital Lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

Controls language expression - an area of the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's Area

Controls language reception-a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

The brain's sensory switchboard, located on the top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Two lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

Pituitary Glands

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress.

A neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

The bulbous end of a neuron containing the cell nucleus

A long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the neuron cell body to other neurons, or to muscles or glands.

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

The bulbous part at the end of the axon that allows for a synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system.

A neurotransmitter associated with helping regulate body temperature, mood, sleep, and appetite.

A neurotransmitter associated with triggering muscle contractions and is also involved in memory, anger, and aggression.

Protein molecules located within or on the outer membrane of cells of various tissues, such as neurons. A receptor receives stimulation that causes a reaction resulting in stimulation or inhibition of the cell.

Affective (Sensory) Neurons

Neurons responsible for converting various external stimuli that arise from the environment of an organism, producing corresponding internal stimuli.

Effective (Motor) Neurons

Neurons located in the central nervous system (CNS) that project their axons outside the CNS to directly or indirectly control muscles and movement.

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane.

Resting Potential

State in which a neuron is not transmitting a nerve impulse. A neuron in this state has a net negative charge relative to its outside environment, and this state of potential energy prepares it to be activated by an impulse from an adjacent neuron.

A surgically induced brain lesion.

Split-Brain Surgery

A surgery where the Corpus Callosum is severed to reduce epileptic seizures

Any defect in or loss of the power to express oneself by speech, writing or signs or to comprehend spoken or written language

Impairment in the ability to recognize and identify objects using only visual means; caused by lesions to the right occipital lobe

The brain's ability to, when other parts are lost or removed, compensate for the loss and adapt

Formation of new neurons

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Converting sensory inputs into different sensations

Sensory Localization

The principle that the type of sensation experienced is related to the area of the brain activated

A neurological phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

Selective Attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference)

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a JND

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage rather than a constant amount

The process by which the eye's lens changes to focus near or far objects on the retina. Adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

Signal Detection Theory

A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue.

Cocktail Party Effect

Ability to attend to only one voice among many

Receptors in the eye that allow us to see black and white

Receptors in the eye that allow us to see color

Sharpness of vision

Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory

The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color.

Opponent-Process theory of color vision

The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

A visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed.

The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

the change between peak (highest amplitude value) and trough (lowest amplitude value, which can be negative).

Place Theory of Hearing

The theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

Frequency Theory of Hearing

The theory that the rate of a nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

Conduction Deafness

Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

An inability to hear, linked to deficit in the body's ability to transmit impulses form the cochlea to the brain, usually involving the auditory nerve or higher auditory processing center

Meaning "ringing" is the perception of sound within the human ear (ringing of the ears) when no actual sound is present, often caused when damage to the ears has occurred

A secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species

Chemical Senses

Senses, such as smell and taste, that respond to chemical molecules.

Olfactory Cells

Cells in the nose that respond to chemicals and allow us to smell

Olfactory Bulbs

A neural structure of the vertebrate forebrain involved in olfaction, the perception of odors.

Bumps on the tongue that contain taste buds, the receptors for taste.

Somesthetic Senses

the body senses consisting of the skin senses, the kinesthetic sense, and the vestibular senses

Kinesthetic Senses

The system for sensing position and movement of individual body parts

Vestibular Senses

The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

A structure in the inner ear, specifically in the vestibular labyrinth of vertebrates. The saccule and utricle, in turn, together make the otolith organs. They are sensitive to gravity and linear acceleration.

Perceptual Constancies

The perception of an object or quality as constant even though our sensation of the object changes

Bottom-Up Processing

Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

Top-Down Processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

Other-race Effect

Our tendency to more easily recognize members of our own race

Figure-ground Organization

The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surrounding (ground)

Gestalt Perceptual Principles

An organized whole. Five different types:
Proximity
Similarity
Continuity
Connectedness
Closure

Visual Cliff Experiment

Eleanor J. Gibson is famous for this experiment which tested babies' depth perception by having them walk across a piece of glass with an obvious drop beneath them

Monocular Depth Cues

Depth cues available to either eye separately. Includes:
Relative Height
Relative Size
Relative Motion
Interposition
Linear Perspective
Light & Shadow

Binocular Depth Cues

Depth cues that require both eyes, such as retinal disparity

Perceptual Expectancy

A mental disposition to perceive one thing and not another

Subliminal Perception

A thought or behavior that is influenced by stimuli that a person cannot consciously report perceiving.

The light sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

The "white" that makes up the body of the eye

A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

Clear membrane at the front of the globe covering the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber.

The part of the brain where the optic nerves partially cross

The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

The visible part of the ear that resides outside of the head

Tympanic Membrane

The eardrum. A structure that separates the outer ear from the middle ear and vibrates in response to sound waves.

Three bones in either middle ear (Hammer, Anvil, Stirrup) that help conduct sound waves into the ear

A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

Basilar Membrane

A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells.

The hair cells in the ear that allow for hearing

A bundle of nerve fibers extending from the cochlea of the ear to the brain that contains two branches: the cochlear nerve, which transmits sound information, and the vestibular nerve, which relays information related to balance.

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Dissociative Experience

A break or disruption in consciousness during which awareness, memory, and personal identity become separated or divided

Altered State of Consciousness

A condition in which changes in mental processes are extensive enough that a person or others notice significant differences in psychological and behavioral functioning.

Circadian Rhythms

The 24-hour biological cycles found in humans and many other species.

Stages of Sleep Cycle

Four stages in the NREM sleep where stage 4 is the deepest sleep
Stage 1: Alpha Waves
Stage 2: Spindles (small bursts of brain activity)
Stage 3:Delta Waves
Stage 4: Delta Waves

Rapid Eye Movement Sleep, during this stage dreams occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active

Sleep Disorders

Insomnia: Unable to fall asleep or stay asleep as long as desired
Narcolepsy: Falling asleep at random times without the intention of doing so
Sleep Apnea: Pauses in breathing or instances of shallow or infrequent breathing during sleep
Somnambulism: Sleepwalking
Enuresis: A repeated inability to control urination during sleep
Night Terrors: Feelings of terror or dread, often found in young children

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

Activation-Synthesis Dream Theory

The theory that REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brains weave into stories

Freud's explanation of dreams

Latent Content: Hidden content of a dream
Manifest Content: What actually happened in a dream
Wish-Fullfillment: Dreams provide a "psychic safety valve" -expressing otherwise unacceptable feelings; contain manifest (remembered) content and a deeper layer of latent content - a hidden meaning

Awareness that a dream is a dream while it is happening.

A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

A learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness.

A social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

Post-Hypnotic Suggestion

A suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

Hilgard's "hidden observer"

Theory about hypnosis developed by Ernest Hilgard. As a result, the hypnotized person experiences one stream of mental activity that respond's to the hypnotists suggestions while a second stream of mental activity is also processing information that is unavailable to the consciousness of the hypnotized subject.

Psychoactive Drug

A drug that alters behavior, thought, or perception by altering biochemical reactions in the nervous system, thereby affecting consciousness

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

Psychadelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Physical Dependence

A physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effects

The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

Psychological Dependence

A psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

A Russian physiologist known primarily for his work in classical conditioning. Mostly known for classically conditioning dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell.

Edward Thorndike

An American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. His work on animal behavior and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for modern educational psychology. He also worked on solving industrial problems, such as employee exams and testing. He was a member of the board of the Psychological Corporation and served as president of the American Psychological Association in 1912. Came up with the Law of Effect

He is known as the originator of social learning theory and the theoretical construct of self-efficacy, and is also responsible for the influential 1961 Bobo doll experiment.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Unconditioned Stimulus

A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning

Unconditioned Response

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Conditioned Stimulus

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Conditioned Response

In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

A procedure in which the reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior is discontinued. Also may be used to describe the "process" by which a previously learned behavior disappears as a result of non-reinforcement.

An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

Spontaneous Recovery

Recurrence of an extinguished conditioned response, usually following a rest period

Long-Term Potentiation

An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

A process in which the CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the original one used during acquisition

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Aversion

pairing a desired CS with an aversive UCS

Systematic Desensitization

A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

An event following a response that strengthens the tendency to make that response.

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Primary Reinforcers

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

Secondary Reinforcers

Learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers.

Social Reinforcers

Interpersonal acts that serve a reinforcing function. They include "attention" (that is, looking at, answering, nodding) smiling, and statesments of recognition of approval. These are practical, because the time required to give recognition, praise, nod smile or make eye contact is minor.

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

Response Contingency

The relationship that occurs when a consequence is dependent on the organism's emitting the desired behavior

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

In operant conditioning, combining the steps of a sequence to progress toward a final action

Instinctive Drift

Tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Fixed-Ratio Reinforcement

a partial reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement following a fixed number of responses.

Variable-Ratio Reinforcement

a partial reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement after a varying number of responses

Fixed-Interval Reinforcement

schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same

Variable-Interval Reinforcement

a partial reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement for the first response after varying periods of time

Behavior Modification

A systematic approach to changing behavior through the application of the principles of conditioning.

An operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats.

Social Learning

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Reciprocal Determinism

The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Developmental Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior

Argues that traits and situations affect thoughts, feelings, and behavior

Cross-Sectional Research

A research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics.

A study in which the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins.

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

The biological process whereby genetic factors are transmitted from one generation to the next

A single piece of coiled DNA and associated proteins found in linear forms in the nucleus; contains genes that encode traits.

A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The _________ of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

The biological identity of a person based on their genitalia. Men are XY and women are XX.

The sexual identity that a person identifies with. Those that are born the same gender as their sex are known as cisgender, those that are born opposite genders as their sex are known as transgender.

Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions.

Sensitive (Critical) Period

A limited developmental phase during which certain behaviors can be learned

The process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

Separation Anxiety

Emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment.

Stranger Anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Human Growth Hormone

Produced by Pituitary Gland, stimulates growth of the body

People's ideas about their own and others' mental states -- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict

All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

Expectations about what is appropriate behavior for each sex.

Gender Identity

One's sense of being male or female

Authoritarian Parenting

A parenting style in which the parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children's desires, and communicate poorly with their children.

Authoritative Parenting

A parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making

Permissive Parenting

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior.

Telegraphic Speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram--'go car'--using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting 'auxiliary' words

A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind.

A reading disability, thought by some experts to involve a brain disorder

ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder)

A psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

an appetite for substances largely non-nutritive, such as ice, clay, chalk, dirt, or sand

The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

Primary Sex Characteristics

The body structures (Ovaries, Testes, and external genitalia) that makes sexual reproduction possible.

Secondary Sex Characterisitcs

Nonreproductive sexual characteristics such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality and body hair

One's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

In Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

Imaginary Audience

A cognitive distortion experienced by adolescents, in which they see themselves as always "on stage" with an audience watching

Emerging Adulthood

For some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to early twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood

The time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

Referred to as male menopause; is marked by the decrease of the male hormone testosterone

An abnormal condition marked by multiple cognitive defects that include memory impairment.

Fluid Intelligence

One's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

Crystallized Intelligence

One's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

Working with geese, he rediscovered the principle of imprinting

An American-Canadian developmental psychologist known for her work in early emotional attachment with the Strange situation design, as well as her work in the development of attachment theory.

An American psychologist best known for his maternal-separation, dependency needs, and social isolation experiments on rhesus monkeys, which demonstrated the importance of care-giving and companionship in social and cognitive development.

A Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher known for his epistemological studies with children

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

Interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas.

Sensorimotor Stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Object Permanence

The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Preoperational Stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

In Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

Irreversibility

A situation that occurs when the level of responding observed in a previous phase cannot be reproduced even though the experimental conditions are the same as they were during the earlier phase

Lack of Conservation

Piaget's term for the inability to realize that some characteristics of an object (such as weight, area and volume) remain the same even when its shape or appearance changes.

Concrete Operational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Ability to recognize that objects can be transformed in some way, visually or physically, yet still be the same in number, weight, substance, or volume

Formal Operational Stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

A German-born American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings of which are:
Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (0-2 years)
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2-4 years)
Initiative vs. Guilt (4-5 years)
Industry vs. Inferiority (5-12 years)
Identity vs. Role Confusion (13-19 years)
Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-39 years)
Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-64 years)
Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65-death)

The man that came up with the theory that identities are constructed in one of the following four ways: diffusion, moratorium, foreclosure, and achievement. He interviewed adolescents using these four categories.

Developed the Sociocultural Theory of cognitive development which stated that learning is continuous and needs a social context

Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance

Zone of Proximal Development

In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they receive proper guidance and instruction

Lawrence Kohlberg

An American psychologist best known for his theory of stages of moral development based off of Piaget's work. Stated that there were six stages of moral development:
1. Obedience and punishment orientation
2. Self-interest orientation
3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation
5. Social contract orientation
6. Universal ethical principles

Moral development studies to follow up Kohlberg. She studied girls and women and found that they did not score as high on his six stage scale because they focused more on relationships rather than laws and principles. Their reasoning was merely different, not better or worse

Elizabeth Kubler-Ross

A Swiss American psychiatrist, a pioneer in near-death studies, discussed her theory of the five stages of grief:
1. Denial
2. Anger
3. Bargaining
4. Depression
5. Acceptance

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Cognitive Psychology

The scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Parallel/Dual Processing

The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

A strategy for to aid in memory where a person learns one level of knowledge/specificity past what is wanted to be retained in order to better retain the desired information

Mnemonic Device

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

The temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach.

Combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short-term memory.

Hierarchical Organization

A kind of organization, in which larger, more general categories are divided into smaller, more specific categories, creating a number of levels of categories

Context-Dependent Learning

An increase in retrieval when the external situation in which information is encoded matches the situation in which it is retrieved

State-Dependent Learning

An increase in retrieval when the internal situation in which information is encoded matches the situation in which it is retrieved

Serial Position Effects (Primacy and Recency)

Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

Distributive Practice (Spacing Effect)

The idea that spreading out learning will enable better long-term storage

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information

Mood-Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

Eidetic (Photographic) Memory

The ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure

Flashbulb Memory

A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform a planned action or intention at the appropriate time

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance. Also involved with the storage of intrinsic memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

An inability to form new memories after damage to part of the brain.

Retrograde Amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one's past after damage to part of the brain.

Infantile Amnesia

Lack of memory for experiences that occurred prior to 3 years of age or so.

Traumatic Amnesia

The forgetting of specific traumatic events, sometimes for many years

Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

Alzheimer's Disease

A progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally, physical reasoning

Proactive Interference

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive Learning

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Positive Transfer

Mastery of one task aids learning or performing another

Negative Transfer

When experience hinders learning in a new situation

The processing of information into the memory system - for example, by extracting meaning

The retention of encoded information over time

The process of getting information out of memory storage

Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Information-Processing Model

The model that depicts memory as three boxes, one for sensory, one for short-term or working memory, and one for long-term memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Short-Term Memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

Long-Term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Implicit Memory

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously, rather these are often linked to skills that we do, stored in the cerebellum

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare," stored around the cerebral cortex

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