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cross cultural exam 3 revised

Terms in this set (64)

ch 9: four major methods of defining abnormality
1. statistical method: map out bell curve of behavior, anything that doesn't fall within certain area of the curve is abnormal
drawback: the cut off is arbitrary

2. social norms: characteristics defined by societal values
---society says what's okay/abnormal (violating these norms and roles leads to discomforting results)
-drawback: 1.) society changes 2.) different societies have different norms

3. psychological theory based: abnormal defined by particular school of thought
-drawback: 1.) theories change 2.) bx may be okay under one theory, but abnormal under another

4. subjective discomfort: considered abnormal if the bx is a problem for the person
-drawback: people don't experience some disorders as a problem for themselves
ch 9: differences between central and peripheral symptoms of psychological disorders
-central symptoms: recognizable in almost all cultures
-peripheral symptoms: culture-specific; how the symptoms are expressed
ch 9: universal/core symptoms of depression
-dysphoria
-anxiety
-tension
-lack of energy
-ideas of insufficiency
ch 9: three cultural differences in diagnosing and reporting affective symptoms
1. stigma of mental illness: people tend to hide or deny their abnormal psych symptoms because of the fear of disapproval and rejection by other people
---ex: some med. professionals avoid giving the "depression" diagnosis, esp. to young women, b/c such a verdict in the eyes of friends + family would be perceived as "incurable" (Japan)

2. health professionals in some countries don't recognize particular psych symptoms (due to historic tendencies in their medical systems)
---ex: health care providers tend to view mental illness predominantly as marked bx with strong psychotic features, affective disturbances seen as caused by situational factors (Africa)

3. symptoms, if not directly observable during an interview, are recorded according to patient's own accounts
---ex: patients do not acknowledge several of their own psychological symptoms; symptoms not revealed until further questioning (China)
ch 9: three broad categories of symptoms used to assess subjective discomfort
...
ch 9: five key areas in which culture impacts psychological disorders
1. culture-based subjective experience: knowledge about psychological problems
2. culture-based idioms of distress: ways individuals explain and express their symptoms according to culture-based display rules
3. culture-based diagnoses: professional and nonprofessional judgments
4. culture-based treatment: the way people, including professionals, attempt to overcome psychopathological symptoms
5. culture-based outcome or principles: the results of treatment are evaluated
ch 9: tolerance threshold, as it pertains to personality disorders
the measure of tolerance or intolerance toward specific personality traits in a cultural environment
-low thresholds stand for relative societal intolerance against specific behaviors and underlying personality traits
-high thresholds stand for relative tolerance
ch 9: three major types of cross-cultural diagnostic errors
1. over-pathogizing: over-diagnosing things
2. under-pathologizing: something is a problem and we ignore it
3. misdiagnosis
ch 9: the impact of cultural context with regard to psychological disorders
-cultural context influences how mental disorders are experienced, described, assessed and treated
add more info
ch 9: ethnic variations in treatment for mental health issues/seeking mental health services in the U.S.
-in the U.S., depressed patients rely more on individual decision making and therefore are more avoidant and show lower self-esteem than Japanese patients
-mexican americans are less likely to use outpatient mental help than other ethnic groups
-asian americans seek fewer treatment services and are more likely to be severely ill at the point of receiving help
-both native americans and african americans use outpatient mental health services at higher rates than whites
-ethnic minority patients have a tendency to drop out of tx before it can be effective more frequently than whites
ch 9: western vs. non-western variations in styles of coping w/ psych distress (somaticize/psychologize)
western - tend to "psychologize" symptoms, meaning that they focus on and report their symptoms

non-western - tend to "somatize" their symptoms, meaning they look at the body and physio aspects of their symptoms
ch 9: collectivistic/individualistic variations in styles of coping with psych distress
...
ch 9: the repressive adaptive style of coping with illness
-individuals hiding their disorders/symptoms
-develops from the "shame of mental illness"
-people from collectivist cultures are more likely to display a repressive adaptive style than people from other groups
ch 9: cultural factors associated w/ suicide
-most of the top 20 countries with the highest suicide rates are economically affluent
-suicide rates tend to be higher in those nations that rank high on subjective well-being (nations in which people tend to be happier have higher suicide rates)
-suicide rates are lower in less developed countries
-suicide rates in Muslim countries can be underreported due to shame and guilt associated
-seen as a way to escape failure/save loved ones from embarassment in Japan
-Af. Am. youth are underrepresented in outpatient mental health services = don't receive preventative care
-rates generally lower in cultures where religion strongly opposes "self-murder"
ch 9: cultural/social factors that influence schizophrenia
-delusional ideas in one culture may be non-delusional in others
-visual and auditory hallucinations could have different interpretations in various places
-speech could be mistakenly diagnosed as disorganized due to different forms of verbal presentation
-higher educational statuses of patients were predictive of whether the illness would remain chronic (non-western)
-people internalize their environmental influences differently (peer pressure, requirements, and expectations from others)
-in Third World countries, the better educated experience higher work-related stress
-if access to medical services and facilities is limited, a more severe case is likely to get attention
ch 9: cultural variations in substance abuse
-muslims, hindus, and mormons prohibit any alcohol consumption
-highest consumption of alcohol are in rich countries of the Northern Hemisphere but also Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand
-lowest consumption in North Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, Eastern Mediterranean region, southern Asia
-cells of blacks who smoke absorb more nicotine than cells of white or Hispanic smokers
-alcohol related disorders are assoc. w/ lower educational levels, lower SES, and higher rates of unemployment
ch 9: alternative explanations for higher levels of schizophrenia in Chinese females
-ratio of men to women is 6:10
-because of the substantial gender gap related to bx's considered appropriate for men and women, doctors may be more reluctant to diagnose men with schizophrenia
-this reluctance is not as likely to affect the diagnosis of women
-also, the Communist authorities may, for political reasons, lower the number of cases reported
**ch 9: discuss several cultural variations in the expression of depression**
-there are variations in diagnostic practices, understanding of the symptoms by the individual, and disclosure of the symptoms
examples:
-headaches reported by patients in Latino and Mediterranean countries
-weakness, imbalance, and tiredness in Chinese and Asian countries
-"problems of the heart" reported in Middle Eastern countries
-Asian cultures' belief in the unity of the mind and body, but tendency not to express feelings openly may lead to presentation of somatic complaints and the underreporting of psych symptoms
**ch 9: discuss collectivistic/individualistic and high/low power distance as they relate to manifestations and evaluations of psychopathology**
collectivism: collectivist norms allow very limited deviance from what is considered appropriate bx.
-there should be less tolerance to and more social sanctions against any exhibition of histrionic or antisocial traits
-personality traits that disengage individuals from the group are also among the least tolerated, including narcissistic, borderline, and schizoid features
-dependent and avoidant pers. traits should be tolerated in general
-obsessive-compulsive traits can be useful when they help an individual to follow strict requirements and rules
-paranoid tendencies may not be seen as pronounced if most people share similar fears and concerns

individualism: tolerance thresholds are relatively high
-norms cultivate tolerance to independent bx and a range of deviations from the norm
-many symptoms of personality disorders in their mild form could be accepted as signs of a person's unique individuality or the person's right to choose his or her own bx scripts
-however, due to expectations that individualism is based on self-regulation and self-discipline

high power distance: tolerance thresholds are relatively high toward bx that is accordance w/ the power hierarchy
-narcissistic personality tendencies are tolerated in individuals of higher status
-antisocial traits are particularly resisted b/c they challenge the established order in relations btwn. older and younger fam members, authority figures, and laypeople
-obsessive-compulsive traits can contribute to coping in interpersonal relationships b/c the person maintains the rules of subordination
-dependent personality traits are tolerated
-avoidant pers. traits are tolerated
-schizoid pers. traits required for some social roles

low power distance: pers. characteristics that are viewed as antiegalitarian are not likely to be tolerated
-among these characteristics are narcissistic and dependent features for their assoc. w/ the idea of personal subordination
ch 9: culture-bound syndrome
-clusters of symptoms that co-occur in cultural groups and contexts that are local patterns of experiences (illnesses)
-simply put, it is psychopathology/symptoms seen in a really small group of people; some cultures don't see it as a psychopathology at all
ch 10: social perception
the process of trying to understand other people and ourselves
ch 10: dogmatism + a current example
-tendency to be extremely selective, rigid, and inflexible in opinions and subsequent behavior
-it is an alliance between attitudes and beliefs that tends to be organized around one central idea
ex: political views
ch 10: attitudes
A: affect; B: behavior; C: cognition
-attitudes CAN CHANGE
-they are one's psychological representations and evaluations of various features of the social world
ch 10: values
-a complex belief that reflects a principle, standard, or quality considered by the individual as the most desirable or appropriate
-they are STABLE and embedded in who we are
-they affect how we think about things
-they have a moral component that affects our attitudes

terminal: personal or social goals
instrumental: morality or competency
ch 10: three categories of values
1. conservatism vs. autonomy: conservative views are shared by individuals who believe in status quo, advocate self discipline, and care about family, social order, and tradition / autonomy emphasizes the right of individuals to pursue their own ideals and to enjoy the variety of life for the sake of pleasure and excitement

2. hierarchy vs. egalitarianism: hierarchy values justify the legitimacy of an unequal distribution of power, resources, and social roles / egalitarian values see individuals as equals who share basic interests and should be treated equally as human beings

3. mastery vs. harmony: mastery values encourage individuals to exercise control over society and exploit its natural resources, ambition and high self esteem / harmony values are based on assumptions that the world should be kept as is: preserved and cherished rather than violated and exploited
ch 10: attitudes found in each of the major clusters of cultural attitudes (western/non-western)
western values (work, achievement, striving for efficiency, and consumption of material goods):
- education (IQ)
- food (fast food, eating vs. body image)
- value of time
- efficient/achievement/success

non-Western values (respect for tradition, reverence to authority, and overall stability):
- social aspect of eating (taking a long time to eat dinner)
- levels of education
- natural/holistic medicine to lose weight
- being a good person (ex. Native Americans down play their wealth)
ch 10: cognitive balance
-when you have beliefs and they line up, universal
-people seek consistency among their attitudes

ex: you and a person you like both agree on something
**ch 10: cognitive dissonance and why people try to reduce it**
cognitive dissonance: tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of an inconsistent thought/belief
-ex: finding mismatch between attitude and behavior, two or more decisions, or two or more attitudes

-why people try to reduce it:
(1) improve evaluation of the chosen alternative
(2) lower evaluation of the alternative not chosen, (3) not thinking or talking about the decision one made
ch 10: cultural variations in what causes cognitive dissonance
-individualistic cultures: people tend to experience dissonance when their behavior violates a personal or social standard
-collectivistic cultures: they are more concerned about violating social standards out of fear of challenging social harmony and being rejected by others
ch 10: three solutions for cognitive dissonance
1. improve evaluation of choice made
2. lower evaluation of alternative not chosen
3. ignore choice made
ch 10: social attribution
the process through which we seek to explain and identify the causes of the behavior of others as well as our own actions
ch 10: positive and negative sanctions
positive sanctions: reward to people following group's norms
negative sanctions: reprove people who deviate from group's norms
ch 10: embeddedness
-the degree to which individuals and groups are enmeshed together
---high embeddedness: focus on internal group solidarity, shared goals, way of life, and resist actions disrupting their in-group solidarity; not particularly concerned for the well-being of those outside their group, tight knit
ch 10: self-centered bias and unassuming bias
-self-centered bias: the tendency to take credit for successes and avoid responsibility for failures
-unassuming bias:
the tendency to explain one's own success as a result of external factors and one's failure as a result of personal mistakes or weaknesses
ch 10: compliance, conformity, and obedience (to authority)
-compliance: yielding to direct explicit appeals meant to produce certain bx or agreement with a particular point of view, doing or saying what others say or do

-conformity: a form of social influence in which individuals change their attitudes or/and behavior to adhere to existing social norms

-obedience: following requests/orders given by an authority figure
- based on the belief that those with authority have the right to issue requests and give such orders
ch 10: cultural factors that influence obedience
-people do tend to obey people with power
-countries with high power distance have higher likelihood to obedience
-predominant leadership style may affect obedience (authoritarian)
-parents from low SES tend to value obedience more than middle-class families
ch 10: original Milgram study and findings; cross-cultural findings
original study: showed that some people easily obey others and by doing that, they also readily violate their own moral standards of bx

milgram's work cross-culturally:
-circumstances in which people obey do not have to be extraordinary
-it's not about the characteristics of the person, it's about the situation
-people tend to obey others who have power
-countries w/ high-power distance have greater obedience than countries with low-power distance
ch 10: why do some people in non-democratic countries believe that authoritarian leaders are "good" for these countries?
...
ch 10: groupthink + cultural influences, group polarization
groupthink: the tendency of members of groups to adhere to the shared views so strongly that they ignore information inconsistent with those views
-cultural influences:

group polarization: the tendency of group members to shift, as a result of group discussion, toward more extreme positions that those they initially held
ch 10: democratic vs. authoritarian leadership styles
-democratic:
---in totalitarian countries, obedient reactions were reported to be more frequent than in democratic societies

-authoritarian:
---presumes direct communications from the leader to the led
---the leader or any authority figure gives the orders and the led must obey
---discussions and exchanges of info are limited
ch 10: cultural factors associated w/ social loafing and social striving
social loafing: tendency of group members to exert less effort on a task than they would if they were working alone or when the size of the group is expanded
- not a universal phenomenon
- way more prevalent in individualistic cultures rather than collectivistic cultures

social striving: a group enhances the individual performance of its members
- way more prevalent in collectivistic culture rather than individualistic cultures
**ch 11: discuss factors related to stereotypical perceptions of national character**
national character: predominant behavioral and psychological features/traits common in most people of a nation (ex. US - primarily speak English, pride with being American, freedom of speech especially for women)

factors affecting stereotypical perceptions related to "national character":
- specific events (ex. wars between 2 countries or serious international incidents commonly generate the "aggressor" image attached to people of a particular nation, even many years after the end of open hostilities)
- history of oppression (ex. lasting colonialist policies and other examples of one country's domination or exploitation of another country frequently produce mutual antagonistic perceptions, people in oppressed countries are viewed as troublemakers and violent by the opposite side, while the dominant country is seen as considered arrogant and immoral)
- wealth and poverty (people of wealthy countries are commonly perceived by people in poor countries as egotistical and mean, while people in poorer nations are stereotypically dismissed by some as lazy and dirty) - many tend to believe these stereotypes because they don't have access to experience or information that would challenge such stereotypes
**ch 11: discuss adv. + disadv of western and non-western values**
western individualism
-less social support
-more isolation
-fewer social ties
-inhibited seeking of external resources
-deficiencies in consensus reaching
-dissatisfaction due to too many choices
-estrangement from self via materialism
-competition yields win-lose social structure
-breeds greed and hedonism
-hampered leisure time
-ageism (youth over elderly)
-exploitation of natural resources

non-western collectivism:
-less individual autonomy
-less privacy
-enmeshed relationships
-excessive dependence on external resources
-deficiencies in personal assertiveness
-dissatisfaction due to limited choices
-estrangement from self via obligation to group
-lack of competition yields less ambition and innovation
-breeds out-group laziness and social loafing
-hampered productivity
-ageism (elderly over youth)
-inefficient use of natural resources
ch 11: ethnic disidentification
detaching an individual's self from the ethnic group with which he/she has been previously associated or is associated now
ch 11: interdependent vs. independent self
interdependent: includes larger networks in which people are socially connected

independent: distinct, autonomous, self-contained, endowed with unique disposition
ch 11: five factors measured by the NEO-FFI + cross-cultural findings
5 distinct basic universal personality dimensions:
1. Openness
2. Conscientiousness
3. Extraversion
4. Agreeableness
5. Neuroticism

-support for FFM arose out of factor analyses of trait adjectives from lexicon that were descriptive of self and others
-NEO personality inventory: instrument in which respondents rate degree to which they agree or disagree that an item is characteristic of them

cross-cultural findings:
ch 11: additional major personality factors that have been suggested
-consistency: personality concept helps psychologists establish consistency in the individual's observable characteristics and make predictions regarding the person's bx
-causation: personality as a concept indicates that an individual's behavior, feelings, or thoughts are not just direct responses to external stimuli
-organization
ch 11: variations related to self-esteem/self-perception
-Chinese lower in perceived self-competence, but higher in self-liking than U.S.
-in collectivist cultures, which require sensitivity to the needs of others and subordination of personal goals to collective needs, it is expected that individuals develop self-liking
-however, b/c of a relative loss of individual control found in these societies, they promote restraints on feelings of self-competence

-individualist cultures: independence and the self are prioritized
-competence in the U.S. related to material status
-low level of self-liking generates compensatory thoughts to be component for U.S. students
ch 11: characteristics of a person with an autotelic personality
-someone who gets involved in certain activities because they find them to be personally rewarding
-these individuals aren't as much concerned with money, fame, or social status
**ch 11: cross-cultural findings related to gender differences**
-in some cultural settings, gender roles were described as contrasting, opposing each other
-in others, they were presented and perceived as complimentary, adding to each other
-in traditional cultural settings, women were supposed to be nurturing and caring, while men were supposed to be decisive and physically strong
-today, gender is commonly perceived as a continuum, with no absolute "male-ness" or "female-ness"
-cross-culturally, gender differences are small compared to individual variation within both male and female groups
-women, compared to men, reported themselves higher in neuroticism, agreeableness, warmth, and openness to feelings, whereas men were higher in assertiveness and openness to ideas
ch 11: cultural variations in locus of control
internal: explain events as influenced by controllable internal factors

external: explain events as influenced by uncontrollable external factors

-western countries: raised to believe that people can control their lives and should be the masters of their life (reality: we don't have as much control over events as we would like to believe we do)
---display a stronger internal locus of control than non-Western countries
---are generally suspicious of dictatorial powers
---possess material resources
---grow up in predominantly individualistic cultures emphasizing individual effort
ch 11: control strategies
1. direct control: self acts as agent, and one feels more self-efficacious when agency is made explicit
2. indirect control: one's agency is hidden or downplayed; people pretend they are not acting as an agent even though they are doing so
3. proxy control: control by someone else for benefit of oneself
4. collective control: attempt to control environment as member of a group; group serves as agent of control
ch 11: cultural aspects of primary and secondary control
primary control: refers to bxs directed at the external environment and involves attempts to change the world to fit the needs and desires of the individual

secondary control: is targeted at internal processes and serves to minimize losses in, maintain, and expand existing levels of primary control
ch 11: natural dominance (of men) paradigm
a general assumption about men's physical and biological superiority over women
-focused on men's natural physical strength, firm character, stamina, willpower, intellectual strength, and creativity
-says women have stronger passion than reason, therefore they are prone to tenderness, affection, and passing feelings
ch 11: androcentricism
placing males or the masculine point of view at the center of a theory or narrative
ch 11: outcomes associated w/ cultures promoting traditional masc/fem gender roles
-men will be part of masculine, features associated with physical strength, decisiveness, and assertiveness
-women will be part of feminine, features associated with beauty, emotionality, and nurture
ch 11: interaction of ethnicity and gender roles
...
ch 11: four major components of religious identity
1. believing: accepting that something larger, more powerful, and more knowing than human beings exists
2. bonding: connection of the individual w/ "higher" beings, religious teaching symbols, and other people
3. acting: moral actions
4. belonging: being part of small religious groups, larger religious communities, etc
ch 11: liquid personality
when men and women increasingly live without any solid bonds
---that is why the term "liquid" is used
---Bauman suggests that people have moved away from a "solid" culture with established norms, customs, roles, and values to a different type of modern, "liquid" life
ch 11: adiaphora
a permanent attitude of indifference and moral numbness
ch 12: the "chief daily concern" for over 1 billion people
survival
ch 12: number one health cost
cost burden of mental disorders will outstrip the cost associated with all other categories of other (non-infection) illnesses, like heart disease and cancer
ch 12: psych issues associated w/ acculturative stress
- increased rates of psychiatric hospitalization in immigrants
- acculturation stress as nostalgia: the person may feel longing for relatives, friends, and familiar cues and experiences
- acculturation stress as disorientation and loss of control: familiar cues about how another person is supposed to behave are missing
**ch 12: organizational development as it applies to CCP + 3 examples**
-a set of planned changes targeted at improving organizational and individual performance and well-being in a private business or government entity
-involves the creation of an atmosphere that incorporates cultural and cross-cultural knowledge into the work process, the aim of which is to increase both the overall efficiency (ex: profit) and psych satisfaction in the workplace

1. entrepreneurs from Japan and China tend to move slowly, carefully, and often appear indecisive, while western business partners tend to view themselves as fast and decisive and often attribute the tentativeness of East Asian partners to bureaucratic restrictions

2. negotiators from Asian countries often prioritize their early negotiation goals of creating a relationship by investing more time and effort in negotiation preliminaries, whereas North Americans tend to rush through this first phase of deal making

3. negative stereotypes hurt communication and business; studies show that Af. Ams. are sometimes stereotyped as antagonistic and lacking competence
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