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Geo of Canada Final

Terms in this set (268)

Southern Ontario Climate
Hot and Humid summers, cold and bitter wind chills in the winter (from Arctic Air)
Ontario Historic Settlement
- French founded first settlement in 1749 across river from Detroit and named it Petite Cote (Windsor)
- Late 1700s British Loyalists from the US began settling throughout region
- Tension between Britian and US resulted in several battles (War of 1812) in Upper Canada (present-day ON)
- War dramatically reduced influx of settlers from the US
War of 1812
Key Objective: US wants to annex southern parts of Upper Canada
- Indigenous forces led by Chief Tecumseh joined the British to fight the US forces
- Dozens killed including Tecumseh at the Battle of the Thames near Moraviantown
Meaning of Ontario
Iroquois word ("beautiful water" - Great Lakes)
The Great Lakes
- 5 great lakes make up the largest body of freshwater in the world
- between each lake are connecting straits
- management and care of lakes is shared by Canada and the US
- Major ports to Great Lakes system: Chicago, Toronto, Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, Milwuakee, Hamilton, Toledo, Windsor, Thunder Bay
- By volume, L. Superior is the largest and L. Erie is the smallest
Welland Canal
allows ships to bypass Niagara Falls
St. Lawrence Seaway
North America's most important deepwater ship route, connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean by way of the St. Lawrence River
Concerns within the Great Lakes
1. Health of the Lakes (eutrophication, water pollution from urban runoff)
2. Toxic Contamination (contaminated sediment, beach closures due to high bacteria content)
3. Exotic Species Due to Lack of Natural Predators (sea lamprey, goby)
lake effect snow
Snow created when cold air flows over relatively warm water then over cold land

Heavy snow falls downwind of lakes

Snowbelts are found downwind of the lakes. (In winter, the wind is often from the northwest.)
Lake Effect Snow in Southern Ontario
London and Kitchener frequently receive lake effect snow from Lake Huron causing high annual snowfall
Windsor occasionally receives lake effect snow from lake Michigan
Lake Effect Clouds
All of Southern Ontario frequently experiences lake effect clouds in winter.
Both lake effect clouds and lake effect snow diminish when the lakes freeze (~Feb)
Thunderstorms and Tornadoes (ON)
Severe thunderstorms and tornadoes can occur when a southwesterly wind brings warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico which interacts with the cooler lake breezes
Regions of Ontario
Northern, Eastern, Central, Golden Horseshoe, Southwestern
Northern Ontario
Major Industries: forestry, mining
Low Population density
Largest Cities: Sudbury, Thunder Bay, Sault Ste. Marie
- Suffers from a disconnection from the rest of the province
- Several succession movements (want to start own province)
Eastern Ontario
- Major industries related to federal government
Largest cities: Ottawa, Kingston, Cornwall
Lakes, rivers, hills, waterfalls add to scenery
- relatively high francophone population due to proximity to QC
Central Ontario
Major industries related to tourism and recreation
Largest cities: Barrie, Peterborough, Orillia
Large proportion of region nicknamed :Cottage Country" (Muskoka)
Golden Horseshoe
Major Industries: finance, insurance, healthcare, education
Largest CMA: Toronto, Hamilton, St. Catherines
- Highly urbanized, attracts immigrants, dense & diverse population
- Name derived from horse-shoe shape of land around western end of Lake Ontario
Southwestern Ontario
Major industries: manufacturing, agriculture
Largest CMAs: Kitchener, London, Windsor
- Region has much in common with the US Midwest
- Several auto assembly plants and feeder factories drive the economy
- Southernmost part is culturally influenced by close proximity to Detroit
Forestry in Northern Ontario
- Demand for lumber gradually diminishing due to technology lowering demand for paper
- Softwood lumber is the man export
- Majority of land is Crown Land (owned by provincial government)
- Provincial government signs a contract with logging companies where strict regulations are in place (ACC - annual allowable cut)
- Major challenge is to maintain balance between cutting and the regeneration of forest as logging companies are responsible for replanting trees
Mining in Northern Ontario
- Canadian Shield contains gold, nickel, silver, and copper
- Metallic mineral production in ON leads that of other provinces and territories
- Mining communities have a short lifespan since minerals are non-renewable; closing mine = huge job losses
Human Geography of Northern Ontario
Aging population, net out emigration (esp. younger people), very few immigrants, small but increasing Indigenous population
Transportation in Northern Ontario
Vast majority of population located along:
- Northern branch of Trans-Canada Highway and Canadian National railroad line
- Southern branch of Trans-Canada Highway and the Canadian Pacific railroad line
Agriculture in Southern Ontario
- Most suitable land for agriculture in Canada due to temperatures moderated by Great Lakes, moderate and consistent precipitation, and fertile soil
- Cropland is dominant in Southwestern Ontario whereas livestock farms are more common in Eastern Ontario
Types of Agriculture in Southern ON
Corn = most common crop; grown throughout Southwestern ON
Tomatoes and grapes: vineyards and greenhouses are common in extreme Southwestern ON
Fruit: peaches, cherries, and plums grown in Niagara area
Tobacco: mainly grown on a sand plain north of Lake Erie in an area centred around Tillsonburg; area has soil that is poor for growing other crops
Niagara Fruit Belt
Small area between L Onatrio and L Erie that contains a microclimate
Adv:
1. Lacustrine soil (bottom of lake, very fertile)
2. Moderated climate from 2 nearby lakes (longer frost-free season in Fall; cooler temps in Spring prevent early budding)
3. Nearby Niagara Escarpment protects area from harsh winds
Manufacturing in Southern ON
Reason for Development:
1. Geographic advantage (proximity to US)
2. Trade restriction (National Policy)
3. Size domestic market (work force)
The Auto Industry
major, well-paying employer in Southern ON
First North American plants built in Detroit & Windsor then industry expanded throughout the lower Great Lakes on both siders of the border
5 Parts:
1. suppliers of materials
2. Parts production in small factories
3. Vehicle assembly in massive plants
4. Service firms (advertisers, designers, sales)
5. Corporate (decision makers, admin)
just-in-time principle
Used by auto industry to take advantage of savings in inventories, warehousing, labour, etc.
The Auto Pact and Benefits for Canadians
The 1965 agreement between the United States and Canada that created free trade in the automotive sector.

Benefits for Canadians:
1. Guaranteed Canadian plants would not close
2. Allowed Canadian plants to specialize in certain models
3. Reduced price of vehicles
The Auto Pact Agreement
Both countries would eliminate 15% tariff on automobiles and parts

- Canada was guaranteed a minimum level of automobile production
- Precursor to NAFTA
Automobile Manufacturing
Ontario = biggest producer of automobiles in North America
- 2009 recession resulted in drop in production but demand for new vehicles has since increased to replace an aging fleet
Automobile Assembly Plants
- Where a vehicle is produced
- All the ones in Canada are in Southern Ontario
- Transportation links to the major markets in Canada and the US are readily available and driving distances are short
Assembly Plant Companies in Southern ON
GM, Chrysler, Toyota, Honda
The Big Three
3 auto companies headquartered in North America (GM, Ford, Chrysler)
- dominate sales of pick-up trucks, minivans, SUVs
Recession Effect on ON
finances of GM and Chrysler collapsed due to drop in vehicle sales
Exports of automobiles to US fell dramatically
Caused thousands of layoff due to ripple effect
Government gave out billions of dollars of loans to keep GM and Chrysler afloat
Now companies have repaid their loans and government is credited with saving thousands of well-paying jobs in ON
Air Pollution in ON
ON government closed all coal plants & replaced with natural gas and nuclear + added wind turbines
Wind Energy in Southern ON
- provincial government created a wind atlas
- best locations for wind turbines are flat landscapes that are relatively close to lake shorelines
ON Trade with the US
> 80% of ON's exports go to the US
Production in primary sector industries in Northern ON (forestry, minerals) is greater than what the Canadian market can absorb so most products go to the US
Majority of ON's exports cross over the Detroit or St. Clair Rivers
High Technology in ON
- innovative technological research is seen as the future of ON's economy
Technology Triangle of Canada
Kitchener, Waterloo and Cambridge
Impacts of Urbanization
1. Farms are subdivided into smaller units (less production)
2. Reluctant to plant new trees
3. Greater demand for services (infrastructure, schools, garbage collection, health care, etc.)
4. Speculation (holding hand in anticipation of future development may lead to higher land prices)
5. Lack of confidence in farming (not considered a good long term investment)
Population Growth in ON
Highest growth in Horseshoe region (around Toronto) partly due to public transit connections
Toronto
financial capital
immigration is major driving force of population
entertainment hub
visible minorities make up 51% of population
Hamilton
Steel production and health care
Kitchener-Waterloo
Technology, research
London
insurance, education, regional centre
St.Catherines-Niagara
tourism
Windsor
auto manufacturing
Sudbury
nickel and copper mining
Thunder Bay
trans-shipment point on the Great Lakes
Salut Ste. Marie
steel production
North Bay
Service Centre
Timmins
Gold mining
Quebec Meaning
Indigenous - "where the river narrows"
Language Laws in Quebec
Provincial laws require businesses to use French
Anglophones
Concentrated in Montreal, Eastern Townships, and Ottawa River Valley
Allophones
concentrated in Montreal; first language is neither English or French
Indigenous People in QC
form majority of population in northern QC
Dredging
Making the St. Lawrence R wider and deeper than in naturally was to allow ships to pass
The St. Lawrence River
Connects the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean

Canals constructed to allow ships to pass around rapids or waterfalls - became part of the St. Lawrence Seaway
Population Growth in QC
QC grew slower than rest of Canada
Relatively high birth rate in northern QC but very low immigration rate in most areas outside Montreal
Reasons for Population Decline in QC
1. Expansion and growth of Canadian West
2. Relocation of businesses and corporate headquarters from Quebec to Ontario
Physical Geography - QC
Canadian Shield 90% of QC
Best agricultural land is along the St. Lawrence R between Montreal and Quebec City
Gaspe Peninsula is very rugged and confines settlements to its coastline
Relatively high precipitation due to proximity to Atlantic Ocean
Enviro Issues in QC
Mining wastes evident within Canadian Shield
Parts of St. Lawrence R still contains high levels of toxic chemicals, lead, mercury from older industrial processes
Intro of zebra mussel negatively impacted aquatic ecosystems
Zebra Mussels
Mall mollusk that was originated to St. Lawrence River by European ships
- Blocked hundreds of pipelines and water intakes
Improving the Environment in QC
- All energy generated from hydroelectric sources
- QC is lowest per capita emitter of GHGs for any province (along with PEI)
- motorists in QC are heavily taxed & portion of tax is used to fund maintenance of hydro system
Historic Timeline of QC
Cartier sailed into Chaleur Bay and claimed the land for France. He discovered the mouth of the St. Lawrence R the following year.

Champlain founded a fur trading post at the current site of Quebec City. He became known as 'The Father of New France'

Maisonneuve established Ville-Marie, located at the confluence of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers

Ville-Marie was later renamed Montreal.

The British defeated the French army on the Plains of Abraham.

After this defeat, the British ruled Quebec for over 100 years.
Benefits of Confederation for QC
- union with 3 other colonies would strengthen the overall economy
- Catholicism and the French language were guaranteed protection by the fed government
- Provinces were given control over education and language laws
- working within ON, QC could influence federal politics and shape the future of Canada
Geographic Expansion of Quebec
Fed government extended QC's northern boundary into the Canadian Shield
Quebec nearly doubled in size when the boundary was expanded to include the Inuit lands of Nunavik
A court declared the boundary between QC and Labrador should follow the drainage basin divide. QC does not agree with this decision to this day.
QC Economy
Geographic aspects of the economy are similar to those in ON since province can be divided into 2 economic areas: highly populated core (south), resource-based periphery (north)
Differences compared to ON:
- short growing season
- better natural conditions for hydro

Manufacturing in QC declined but still a viable industry
There are currently about a dozen firms in Montreal that produce automobile parts

The parts are then shipped to assembly plants in ON and the US

Research and technology industries are associated with universities in Montreal
Hydro-Quebec
- sense of pride among QC residents and has become a symbol of its economic prominence
- QC purchased all private electrical utilities in the province
- created a monopoly to generate and distribute electricity both within the province and export
Objectives of Hydro-QC
- simulate economic growth through government intervention
- undertake construction of massive hydroelectric projects in the Canadian Shield
- Build high-voltage transmission lines to transport electricity
- Sell power to the northeastern states of the US
- These strategies have been highly successful
Possible Expansions of Hydro-Quebec
Long-term goal: taking over electrical utilities in NB and NS
Strategy: gain control of the power grid in these provinces to achieve dominance of the area as well as a share of the market in NY state and the 6 New England states
Hydroelectric Development Factors
precipitation, topography, access to markets
Advantages of Hydroelectric Developments
- renewable energy
- long life of the facilities
- relatively low operating costs
- job creation during construction
- no greenhouse gas emissions
How is Hydro-Quebec able to offer low energy prices to industrial firms?
1. Northern Quebec can produce vast amounts of power (much more than the province needs)
2. Hydro-Quebec has a long-term contract to buy power from Churchill Falls in Labrador at 1969 prices
3. As a monopoly, Hydro-Quebec is free to control its own price structure
The James Bay Project
- Involves the production of hydroelectricity from all 20 rivers that flow into James Bay from QC
- first phase (La Grande) began in 1972 and was completed 10 years later at a cost of $15 billion
- construction required a new highway to northern Quebec and the creation of a new community (Radisson)
Controversy Surrounding the James Bay Project
The project was one of the few hydroelectric developments that created controversy
Indigenous peoples and environmental organizations were most outspoken against the project
Problems Associated with the James Bay Project
- flooding caused by dams
- loss of habitat
- loss of timber
- chemicals in the reservoirs affected fish that were eaten by Indigenous peoples (Cree and Inuit)
- impact on indigenous hunting grounds
James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement
- Response to Controversy of James Bay Project
- Opposition from the Cree and Sierra Club influenced public opinion in the US
- A settlement was reached between the Indigenous peoples and Hydro-QC
Geography of Northern QC
- part of the province occupies the Canadian Shield and Hudson Bay Lowlands
- Economy based on forestry and mining
- Few roads, area too remote to attract tourists
- political opportunities currently growing for the northern QC region of Nunavik
Nunavik
- over 90% of the population in this area is Inuit
- Nunavik means "great land" in Inuktitut
- almost all residents live in one fo the 15 settlements along the coast
- negotiations are ongoing to establish a regional government
Regional Government in Nunavik
- elected parliamentary-style cabinet and council
- public service would be responsible for delivering health care and education
- Government centre would be in Kuujuaq
- QC would maintain jurisdiction over the area and provide funding
Forestry in Quebec
- QC is Canada's leading producer of paper and newsprint - most of it is exported to the US
- demand for QC's softwood lumber has been consistently higher US softwood lumber since QC's cold climate results in slower tree growth which increases the strength of the wood
Mining in QC
- Mining is a key component of the economy in northern QC
- the annual value of mineral production in northern QC is over $4 billion
- iron ore is the most common type of mine followed by copper and gold
Tourism in Quebec
- tourists attracted due to natural beauty, historic past, and Francophone culture
- within days drive of tens of millions of people
Threats to tourism:
- Canadian dollar fluctuation
- Global economy uncertainty
- Thickened US border
Urbanization in QC
- over 80% of QC's population in an urban area
- over 70% of the population live in one of 6 cities: Montreal, Quebec City, Gatineay, Sherbrooke, Saguenay, and Trois-Riveres

Saguenay is the name of 2 cities that merged together in 2002
Montreal
- commercial, cultural, and industrial centre of Quebec
- "Royal Mountain" in French - large hill in the centre of the city
- serves as a major port and trans-shipment point between the Great Lakes and Atlantic Ocean
- located on an island in the St. Lawrence River
Quebec City
- oldest city in Canada
- only walled city in North America and features buildings over 300 years old
- the economy is dependent in provincial government jobs and tourism
The Eastern Townships (Estrie)
This is a scenic area of Montreal abutting the Appalachian Mountains

Sherbrooke is the largest city in the area
Physical Geography of BC
The Insular Mountains are located just off the coast of BC and form the backbone of Haida Gwaii and Vancouver Island

Central plateau lands are found between mountain ranges

Temperate rainforests are found along the coast, semi-arid conditions in parts of the interior, and tundra at high elevations

BC is divided into 7 regions
Climate in BC
- varied topography creates many microclimates
- Victoria is in rainshadow of Insular Mountains & receives 40% less precipitation than Vancouver
- Summers in Vancouver and Victoria are mild and relatively dry
Pineapple Express
A flow of warm air in winter originating in Hawaii that keeps B.C. mild but also very wet
Regions of British Columbia
Vancouver Island Coast
Lower Mainland Southwest
Kootenay
Thompson-Okanagan
Cariboo-Prince George
Skeena-North Coast
Northeast
Vancouver Island - Coast
The Coast mountain range is the most prominent physical feature
Fjords are common along the coast
- mildest winters in Canada due to moderation by Pacific Ocean
- Industries: forestry, fishing, and government services (in Victoria)
Lower Mainland-Southwest
- contains alluvail soil with a high nutrient content
- major agricultural area of BC
- home to Vancouver and majority of BC population
Thompson-Okanagan
- Kamloops and Kelowna located in this region in the BC interior
- Relatively dry area with sunny, warm summers
- Land is composed of a mix of open range grasses, ranching, forest, and some crops
- Tourism is an important industry in the area around Lake Okanagan
- Transportation corridors pass through this region (roads and rails follow the Thompson River)
Kootenay
- The Rocky Mountains are found in this region as are the cities for Nelson, Cranbrook, and Fernie
- The Continental Divide forms the border between this region and Alberta
- Economy based on tourism. mining, hydro
Cariboo-Prince George
- regional service centre for surrounding area
- forestry, mining, ranching, pulp and paper mills are important industries in this region
- University of North British Columbia in Prince George
Skeena - North Coast
- isolated area bordering Alaska
- economy driven by fishing, mining, aluminum smelters, and hydro
- Prince Rupert is the 2nd busiest port on Canada's west coast
Northeast Region
- The only highway connecting Yukon and Alaska to southern Canada passes through this region
- Small towns service traffic and truck transport along the corridor
BC Economy
- fast growing population; many immigrants in Vancouver from Asia and are fuelling economic growth
- 4 main exports: lumber pulp, natural gas, coal
- Vancouver popular for filming Hollywood movies
- imported good from China, Japan, and South Korea flow through Vancouver to markets across Canada
Western Alienation BC
- Rocky Mountains act as more than just a physical divide
- throughout history, many residents of BC have felt a disconnection from the rest of Canada
- one expression of this is the concept of Cascadia: Name proposed for an independent country uniting BC and the states of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho
BC earthquakes
- BC located in a geologically active area where one tectonic plate is subducting beneath another
- earthquakes stronger than M7.5 on the seafloor are capable of producing tsunamis
Historical Geography of BC
- early exploration led by Spanish, Russians, and British explorers
- Spain eventually surrendered its claim to all of the Pacific coastal areas north of the 42*N latitude
- US-British boundary drawn along the 49*N latitude; this line became the US-Canada border from the BC coast to Manitoba
- influx of Americans during the gold rushes
- Britain established the colony of BC to ensure British rule over the land
- after confederation, the federal government aimed to lure BC into Canada by promising to build a railroad to the Pacific Ocean within 10 years of BC joining
- BC became the 6th Canadian province in 1871
- after completion of the CPR, towns and cities developed along the corridor
- Vancouver quickly grew as a trans-shipment point for lumber and coal produced in BC and also for grain produced in Prairies
- 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver
BC Core or Periphery?
- BC no longer has a resourced based economy
- while economy is growing and diversifying, it has a very small manufacturing base
-in this sense, it is not a core region
- however, economic advancement in the knowledge-based economy has resulted in BC becoming an upward transitional periphery region
Pacific Rim Trade
- Canadian exports to China, Japan, South Korea make up 25% of the products passing through BC ports
- trade is rapidly accelerating with China as its economy continues to develop
Asia Pacific Gateway Corridor
A program that improves infrastructure leading to BC ports
BC Fishing
- over 80 species of fish and marine animals are harvested from the Pacific Ocean
- the most valuable species are salmon, herring, and shellfish
- overexploitation of the salmon stock has plagued the BC fishing industry
BC Salmon Industry
Regulating salmon fishing is challenging because they are a migratory fish
Main BC salmon spawning areas are Fraser R and Skeena R
Federal government responsible for managing salmon stock and faces 4 issues:
1. Salmon spawn in rivers but migrate to oceans then return to rivers to spawn (5 year cycle)
2. The forestry and hydroelectric industries have negatively impacted salmon spawning grounds
3. Indigenous peoples are permitted to catch salmon for subsistence
4. The harvesting of salmon spawned in BC by other countries in international waters

Size of catch is highly variable from year to year but overall trend is downward because
- pollution of fish habitat
- warming ocean temps
- overfishing
- high fish quotas
-indigenous fishery
Tragedy of the Commons
refers to the destruction of renewable resources that are not privately owned
Mining in BC
- exporting coal and copper from BC mines is a challenge because most of the mines are located far from the ocean ports
- a shale deposit in northeastern BC contains a vast quality of natural gas
- the export of liquified natural gas to Asia is poised to become a major industry
Hydro in BC
- BC is 2nd largest producer of hydro in Canada after QC
- over 80% of the power in BC is generated by hydro
- ideal conditions for hydro in Cordillera: high elevation, steep-sided valleys, fast flowing rivers
- large aluminum production plants located in northern BC since low cost for electricity
BC Tourism
- tourists attracted to natural beauty and wilderness of BC and cosmopolitan urban centres
- Whistler ski resort benefited from hosting some of the 2010 Winter Olympic events
- Cruise ships bound for Alaska often stop along the BC coast
- The controversial widening of the Sea-to-Sky highway was done to meet growing tourism demand
Forestry in BC
- BC contains half of Canada's softwood lumber and leads the nation in the export of forest products
- forestry industry is declining due to reduction of softwood lumber exports to the US
- BC forests are divided into 2 major regions: the coast forest (rainforest) and interior boreal forest (away from ocean)
BC Coast Forest
- mild temperatures and abundant rainfall
- low risk of forest fires results in massive trees over 200 years old
- common species are fir, cedar, hemlock
BC Interior Forest
- precipitation is less abundant
- prone to drought and forest fires in late summer
- trees are smaller and have a shorter lifespan
- common species are lodgepole pine, ponderosa pine, mountain pine
BC Mountain Pine Beetle
- destroyed vast areas of BC interior forest
- warmer winters due to climate change are allowing the beetle to spread at a rapid rate
- beetles are the size of a grain of rice and bore into the bark of diff species of pine trees
Softwood lumber dispute
US lumber producers complained to the US government about losing market share to Canadian producers who were selling lumber at lower prices
Lobbyists encountered the US government to impose duties on Canadian lumber
Despite existence of NAFTA this was allowed because US companies claimed power prices were a form of unfair trade
Softwood Lumber Trade Agreement
- 9 year agreement between the US and Canada signed in 2006
Highlights:
- US had to return $4 billion of duty it charged on Canadian lumber companies since 2002
- US could not launch trade actions against Canadian lumber producers
- If lumber prices fell below a certain value, Canada had to impose a tax on its lumber exports. (This protected US lumber companies)


- Canadian wood is stronger so has a higher demand than US lumber (colder climate = slower growing & stronger trees)
Softwood Lumber Today
- lumber from Canada highly valued by house construction firms in the US
- US now charging tariffs on softwood lumber again claiming the lower Canadian prices are a form of unfair trade
- Canada filed dispute of this through NAFTA dispute resolution clause
- Clause has been maintained in the new USMCA agreement which will soon replace NAFTA
Urbanization in BC
over 60% of BC residents live in the Lower-Mainland-Southwest region
- CMAs: Vancouver, Abbotsford

2nd most populated area is found on southeastern Vancouver Island
- Cities: Victoria, Nanaimo

3rd population cluster located in the interior
- Cities: Kelowna, Kamloops, Penticton
Vancouver
- largest port in Canada and 3rd largest CMA
- Nearly 20% of CMA is of Chinese ethnic origin; highest % in Canada
- Approx 1/3 of people do not identify with any religion; highest amount in Canada
Vancouver housing prices
- 3rd least affordable city in the world (after Hong Kong, and Sydney, Australia)
- average family dwelling costs 11 times more than average household income
- 2016, BC government allows city to implement 15% tax on properties sold to foreign buyers
Prairie Provinces
- southern half of region is heavily agricultural
- topography is relatively flat. climate is dry and sunny with extreme temp differences between summer and winter
- oil is most important natural resource and is found in the western part of the region
- tourism is highest in foothills of Rockies
- high Indigenous population and relatively high Eastern European population
Alberta Name Origin
Princess Louise Caroline Alberta was the 4th daughter of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert
Saskatchewan Meaning
Cree word "swift flowing water"
Manitoba Meaning
Cree word "straits of the great spirit"
Prairie Land Division
Before 1869:
land division based on Metis settlement patterns. lots were narrow and provided frontage along rivers.
After 1869:
based on grids and square lots 1/4 of a square mile in size

The square pattern preceded Eastern European settlement and was superimposed over physical obstacles and the preceding Metis settlement pattern

Initially villages and towns were arranged in a linear pattern linked to railways - provided basic services for nearby farmers
Larger towns developed around grain elevators; roughly every third settlement along the railway was larger and provided more diverse services than villages (school, medical clinic)
Each village was home to frequently used services (general store)
Reasons for Prairie Rural Population Decline
1. Farms became larger and more mechanized leading to a lower population density
2. Grain farms became more common. There is no livestock on these types of farms thus minimal staffing necessary.

- # of farms decreasing but size of farm increasing so total amount of farmland isn't changing much
Reasons for Prairie Village Decline
1. lower rural population density of rural areas leads to less businesses for villages
2. an increased use of trucks and cars as opposed to railways. When new roads and highways were built they tended to bypass small villages.
3. rationalization of roads and railway systems. infrequently used transportation corridors were shut down. Fewer villages resulted in reduced need to maintain dense local network.
Decline in villages = closing rail lines
Closing rail lines = decline in villages
Prairie Sites of Growth
1. Dormitory towns (people line in the town but work in a nearby city like Winnipeg or Edmonton)
2. Sites of government services
3. Resource towns
Gateway Cities
- some cities in the central Prairies act as collection and distribution points between the city and the nearby hinderland to their north
The size of the gateway city often reflects the economic strength of the hinderland

Edmonton - Northern Alberta hinderland
Prince Albert - Northern Saskatchewan hinderland
Thompson - Northern Manitoba hinderland
Prairies - Surveying the Land
As land surveyors for the federal government continued progressing westward, they advanced on land occupied by Indigenous peoples
In the late 1800s, 12000 Metis in the region responded with organized rebellions
Other more nomadic Indigenous peoples felt little choice but to sign treaties
Surveyors were deployed to divide the land into townships which were each composed of 36 sections; each section was one square mile in area
Each newcomer family from Eastern Europe was given one-quarter of a section
They were given the land on which to build a homestead but at that time there was no access to electricity or plumbing
Challenges Facing Homesteaders
- grid and square based survey system created a highly dispersed rural population which created a sense of isolation
- many settlers were not prepared for the climate (cold, drought, wind, thunderstorms, hail) and the far distance to large population centres
- homesteaders were forced to be innovative (eg. practicing summer fallow) in order for their crops to succed
Summer Fallow
leaving the land idle for one growing season to accumulate soil moisture
Canadian Pacific Railway
- John A Macdonald's vision of Canada included a railway extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific
- the US had already completed a transcontinental railway by the 1870s
- the HBC owned much of the land in the west. the federal government paid the company in exchange for allowing the construction of the railway
Political Movements in the Prairies
1. CCF (Co-operative Commonwealth Federation) - socialist philosophy and currently known as New Democratic Party
2. Social Credit Party - strict religious philosophy; popularity maximized in 1940s/50s
3. Reform Party - founded by Preston Manning in Alberta and he was the only person to ever lead the party. it had a strong conservative (right wing) philosophy. it became the official opposition in Ottawa and then changed its name to Canadian Alliance.
4. Canadian Alliance - Led by Preston Manning and then Stephen Harper, it merged with the Progressive Conservative Party in 2003 to form the current Conservative Party.
Economy of the Prairies
- from 2006 to 2015 the Prairies had the lowest unemployment rates in Canada
- Even during the global economic crisis, unemployment rates remained well below the national average
- majority of the population lives in one of the 5 largest CMAs and most people in the hinderland live in resource towns (Fort McMurray, Thompson)
5 Largest CMAs in Prairies
Calgary, Edmonton, Winnipeg, Saskatoon, Regina
Prairies Shift to Natural Gas
- price of oil increased significantly in 1970s
- US demanded for oil and gas from Alberta increased at this time
- technological advancements created a method to separate oil from sand therefore allowing output to increase at that time
- increased demand for potash (used as fertilizer) provided a boost in economy in SK
Agriculture in the Prairies
- driving force behind settlement and development of Prairies
- during early settlement, wheat was the common crop. canola has become increasingly common.
- higher prices for canola today have been triggered by expanding demand of ethanol as an alternative fuel for vehicles
Agricultural Belts
Fertile belt, dry belt, agricultural fringe
The Fertile Belt
- relatively high levels of soil moisture and an adequate frost-free period
- crops: wheat, canola, beans, peas, sunflowers
- mixed farming common (grains mixed with beef and pork production)
- lack of tree cover, not completely flat, dark soil with organic content
The Dry Belt
- Cattle ranching is most common. Wheat is the only crop that can grow in this area.
- Practicing continuous cropping is a growing trend
- Irrigation is necessary
continuous cropping
Practice where the stubble left behind is not removed. The stubble aids in controlling weeds before the next crop is planted; reduces soil erosion in winter
The Great Sand Hills
- isolated area in southwestern Saskatchewan
- unique landscape formed from wind that has caused the beach deposits of former glacial lakes to form into dunes
- dunes have stabilized as grasslands have encroached around them
- glaciers dumped sand, and wind sculpted it into dunes
Livestock Industry in Prairies
- livestock processing is an important secondary sector industry in the region
- large hog-slaughtering plants located in Brandon, Red Deer and Lethbridge
- Larger plants are ideal because they achieve economies of scale
Economies of Scale
A reduction in per unit cost that results from an increase in output; more output = cheaper cost of each unit (since costs to run a plant are usually fixed)
Oil Industry in Prairies
- sedimentary rock underlaying the region contains valuable deposits of fossil fuels
- Used to have to import oil from US and Ontario. Oil originally found in Western Canada was clear and didn't need to be refined
- Oil production centred in Alberta
- Edmonton is the oil production centre and Calgary is the administrative centre
- Some production activity in southeastern Saskatchewan and south western Manitoba
- 4 leading natural resources in the region: oil, natural gas, coal potash
- oil sands in northeastern AB are the largest reserves of bitumen in the world
- Oil sands are mixed with hot water and transported to processing plants where hydrocarbon molecules are broken into smaller ones
- the product is then supplied to refineries which process it into gasoline, diesel, and propane
Bitumen
oil contained in tar sands
Environmental Issues in the Prairies
- oil industry faces the problem of what to do with the vast quantity of non-renewable water
- water is toxic and cannot be released into local rivers or lakes
- amount of toxic water is increasing daily
- leakage from the ponds can affect groundwater or nearby surface water, including the Athabasca River
- new regulations are requiring the oil companies to reclaim the tailing ponds currently housing toxic sludge
- there are pilot projects currently underway but no proven solution currently exists
- possible solution: bury the sludge in deep pits and cover it with layers of soil

Extraction of oil sands presents several environmental challenges to Alberta:
- release of GHGs
- scarred landscapes
- toxic water deposited into sludge ponds
- nearly 2 billion litres are deposited into the ponds each day
Mining in Prairies
- AB contains rich coal reserves along the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains
- Potash and uranium are mined in SK
- Copper (Flin Flon) and nickel (Thompson) are mined in the Canadian Shield region of Manitoba
Forestry in Prairies
- Nearly 75% of lumber production in the prairies is in Alberta
- in Manitoba, the Pas is a resource town with a large pulp and paper mill
Urbanization isn the Prairies
- population has undergone a dramatic rural to urban shift over past 100 years
Southern Albertha
Corridor from Edmonton to Calgary has become one fo the more densely populated areas in Canada
High growth rates are evident
Red Deer is located in the centre of the corridor
Population drops off as you hit the mountains; low population in Palliser's triangle
Calgary
BP, Imperial Oil (Esso), and Shell have their HQ's in Calgary
The proximity to the Rocky Mountains and Banff supports the tourist industry
The economy is greatly dependent on oil (unemployment rates in Calgary are correlated to oil prices)
Edmonton
- known as Gateway to the North. The Aurora Borealis (northern lights) are frequently visible.
- along with being an oil production centre, it is an important government centre (capital of Alberta)
- the retail rector is driven by West Edmonton Mall, the largest mall in North America
Winnipeg
- historic gateway to the west
- at one point, all goods that were shipped to the Prairies from the manufacturing core of Canada passed through Winnipeg
- in 1990, Winnipeg was the largest city in the prairies
- it was a major centre for grain processing and was the administrative and financial hub of the region
- grain shipment decreased steadily as the port of Vancouver grew larger
- Winnipeg remained the largest CMA in the Prairies within the 1970s
- the north end of the city has a high Indigenous population and poverty-driven social problems
Historical Geography of Red River Valley
- HBC administered much of the land
- Land was mainly used for fur trading
- Lord Selkirk from Scotland acquired land in the Red River Valley from the HBC
- Scottish settlers arrived to form an agricultural settlement
- it became known as the Red River Settlement
The Red River and Flooding
- the Red River flows from south to north through very flat land with relatively impermeable soil
- in Spring, a melting snowpack at the head of the river (in the south) adds to the discharge
- at the same time, ice at the base level of the river (in the north) creates a damming effect
- impermeability of chernozemic soil causes excess water to accumulate on the land surface instead of infiltrating
- land in the north has been slowly rising since the disappearance of the ice sheet 5000 years ago; this results in a very slow river current because of the decreasing elevation differences between the south and north
- all of these factors contribute to consistent flooding along the Red River in North Dakota and Manitoba
The Red River Floodway
- after frequent flooding events, Manitoba invested in constructing the Red River Floodway
It is an artificial waterway 48km long designed to divert excess water around the city.
It is estimated to have saved billions of dollars in economic losses since it opened
Atlantic Canada Economy
- unemployment rates frequently highest in Canada and there is a heavy dependance on the federal government for economic support
Reasons for weak economy in the Atlantic
1. division into four small provinces discourages an integrated economy
2. some of the natural resources have been exhausted (coal, iron) or overexploited (cod)
3. The population is widely dispersed and consists of small cities and towns.
4. The long distance to major cities has suppressed any type of manufacturing base.
5. Geographically isolated from political power and is represented by only 32 seats in the House of Commons
Unemployment in Atlantic Canada
- especially high in rural and coastal communities
- many of these towns and villages have their roots in the fishing industry which can no longer support them
- some former fishers turned to commuting to the Alberta oil sands
- workers spend 20 consecutive days in Fort McMurry and then return to Atlantic Canada for 8 days
Physical Geography Atlantic
- 2 physiographic regions: Appalachian Uplands and Canadian Shield
- Maritimes and island of Newfoundland are in the Appalachian Uplands
- Appalachian Uplands are eroded ancient mountain chains; over millions of years, streams from melting glaciers have cut deeply into the land resulting in hilly terrain with rugged areas and fjords
- Tablelands in western NFLD is where one of the few places in the world where the Earth's mantle is exposed; a collision of tectonic plates 350 MYA forced the mantle up and over the crust - rock of the mantle is ultramafic and lacks the nutrients required to support life; the resulting landscape is barren and desert-like despite receiving a large amount of precipitation
- Labrador is in the Canadian Shield - most prominent features are the Torngat Mountains formed 750 mya
Labrador
- Geography has resulted in Labrador being drawn into the orbit of Quebec
Examples:
1. Hydroelectricity produced in Labrador is transmitted by lines through Quebec
2. Iron ore mined in Labrador is shipped to the port of Sept-Isles, Quebec
3. The Labrador-Quebec Highway connects Labrador's largest city (Happy-Valley Goose Bay) to Quebec's provincial highway system
Atlantic Climate
- proximity to Atlantic Ocean results in high amounts of precipitation
- cold Labrador Current keeps winter temperatures cold enough for heavy snowfall
- winter storms that move across N America gain moisture from the Atlantic Ocean and thus intensify as they move over the region
- Moderating effect of Atlantic Ocean keeps winter temperatures along the coast warmer than other parts of Canada that are similar in latitude
- Warm, moist air masses that originate over the Gulf of Mexico can travel up the coast and collide with continental air masses leading to heavy cloud cover
Nor'easters
Storms that rapidly gain intensity as they gain moisture from the Atlantic Ocean
The Labrador Current
- a cold ocean current flowing down from the north
- the presence of the current is evident by the flow of icebergs that originate in Greenland
- responsible for carrying the iceberg that led to the Titanic sinking
Climate of Newfoundland
- least desirable climate of any province
- Gulf Stream is a warm ocean current originating off the east coast of Florida
- It meets the Labrador Current off the south coast of Newfoundland
- The mixing of the warm and cold cold causes frequent fog and mist
Atlantic Historical Geography
- region was first part of N America to be discovered by European explorers
- Vikings from Norway established a settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows in 1000 AD. This site is the northernmost point of the island of Newfoundland
- Italian explorer John Cabot reached the area while searching for a route to Asia
- the population of the area became a mix of British, French (Acadians), and Indigenous peoples (Mi'kamq)
- The French surrendered Acadia (what is now the Maritime provinces) to British with Treaty of Utrecht
- English gained dominance in area after the expulsion of Acadians
- Following Treaty, Acadians refused to sign an oath of allegiance to Britain and some participated in military operations against Britain
- British deported majority of Acadians (over 11,000)
- Many Acadians migrated to France or Louisiana where they contributed to the founding of modern Cajun population
- US War of Independence impacted the historical settlement of Atlantic Canada
- Following victory of US, 40000 British Loyalists migrated to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick
- Waves of immigrants from the British Isles continued over the next 100 years
- Scottish tended to settle on Cape Breton Island and the Irish around Saint John, New Brunswick
Treaty of Utrecht
- French surrendered Acadia to British
- English gained dominance in area after expulsion of Acadians
- Following Treaty, Acadians refused to sign an oath of allegiance to Britain and some participated in military operations against Britain
St.Pierre & Miquelon
- only remaining land of the former New France that still belongs to France today
- home to 600 people and is accessible by a 90 minute ferry ride from Fortune, Newfoundland
Early Economic Growth of Atlantic Canada
- early 1800s, harvesting of the area's natural wealth was rampant
- availability of timber and seaside location provided idea conditions for shipbuilding
- Just before Confederation, iron replaced wood as the main resource for shipbuilding
Atlantic Provinces and Confederation
NS and NB joined Canada at Confederation (1867)
PEI at 1873
NFLD & Labrador at 1949
- All were reluctant to join knowing they were far from major markets in the rest of Canada
- Intercolonial Railway from Montreal to Halifax played a role in luring the Maritimes to join; gave access to larger markets and allowed Maritime businesses to achieve economies of scale
- However, National Policy led to development of southern Ontario and southern Quebec as the main manufacturing area in Canada and ultimately resulted in the Atlantic region remaining as a periphery
Linking Newfoundland
- after NFLD joined Confederation, the federal government committed to completing the Trans-Canada Highway across NFLD
- the federal government operates a daily year-round ferry service to Port Aux Basques and an overnight ferry in summer months to Argentia
Steel Industry in Nova Scotia
- Iron mining provided the basis for steel industry in Cape Breton Island
- Much of the steel was used for the construction of railroads all across Canada
- Demand for steel dropped following WWII and the size of the labour force was reduced
- the steel mill closed in 2001 and has left Cape Breton Island with a depressed economy
Sydney Tar Ponds
- Sydney, NS (on Cape Breton Island) was formerly a major iron and steel centre in Canada
- Waste products from the Sydney Steel Company were housed in the Sydney tar ponds
- Toxic chemicals began leaking into a nearby creek and seeping into basements
- In the late 1990s, people living in the vicinity had the highest cancer rates in Canada
- site of the biggest environmental cleanup project in Canada
- the federal government spent $400M on clean up
- contaminated sediment was incinerated as hydrocarbon eating bacteria was used to reclaim some soil. The ponds were then buried.
Atlantic Continental Shelf
Shallow part of the ocean - the perimeter of the continent associated with a coastal plane
- Atlantic Canada has a vast continental shelf that extends up to 400 km off shore
Banks
Shallow areas of a continental shelf
Largest are Grand Bank and Gorges Bank
Georges Bank
- a shallow area that is extremely attractive to fish
- the federal government claimed the right to manage fisheries within 200 nautical miles off Canada's east coast; the US federal government did the same for UD east coast
- resulted in an area of dispute between the 2 countries
- decision by International Court: 5/6 of Gorges Bank to US
- 1/6 that belongs to Canada is very rich in scallops and has helped the NS economy
Atlantic Fishing Industry
There are differences in types of catch by location:
- NFLD depended mostly on cod fishing until the collapse of that industry
- the Maritime provinces harvest a variety of sea life (flounder, shrimp, crab, scallops)
- lobster has become the most valued species, accounting for 60% of the total value of the Maritime fishing industry

Modernization has impacted the fishing industry:
- fewer fishers are required since nets and gear have become more efficient
- large trawlers contributed to the problem of exploitation
The Cod Fishery
The collapse of the cod industry in NFLD forced many fishers to turn to government assistance
Mismanagement of cod fishery was based on 3 factors:
1. Estimates of cod stocks by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans were too high
2. There was a strong pressure for high quotas from NFLD politicians
3. Canada does not have control over the outer regions of the Grand Banks

The largest concentration of Atlantic cod was in the Grand Banks
By the 1960s the annual catch was 2 million tonnes per year
Much of the catch was from European-based trawlers

The weighted nets indiscriminately trap all types of fish regardless of age, species, value
Implications:
- enormous waste since non-commercial fish are discarded
- destroy fragile ecosystems on ocean floor including coral reefs and habitats for breeding

The federal government placed a moratorium on cod fishing. It is still not known how long it will take for the stock to fully recover. Cod do not reproduce until the age of 7 years.
Forestry in Atlantic Canada
- majority is in New Brunswick and Newfoundland
- some forests in NB have been logged three times over the past 300 years
- industry has declined with slumping newsprint industry
- since 2007, five pulp and paper mills in Atlantic Canada have closed
Mining in Atlantic Canada
The Canadian Shield in Labrador has deposits of iron ore and nickel
Voisey's Bay is a nickel mine in Labrador. It is a lucrative mine because the deposit is close to the surface and it is a short distance from the ocean coast.
Some of the sedimentary layers in Appalachian Uplands contain coal, especially Cape Breton Island
Voisey's Bay
Nickel mine in Labrador. Lucrative mine because the deposit is close to the surface and it is a short distance from the ocean coast.
Shipbuilding in Atlantic Canada
- federal government has an objective of developing world class shipbuilding industry in Halifax
- over next 30 years, 21 ships to be used by the Canadian Navy will be built at the Halifax shipyard
- future maintenance of these ships will ensure stable employment in this industry for decades
Atlantic Offshore Petroleum Deposits
- Petroleum deposits off coast of St. John's are a source of optimism for NFLD
- in 2007, province negotiated a 4.9% equity share in an offshore drilling project
- the revenue from this resulted in NFLD and Labrador becoming a "have" province in 2009 for the first time in history
Hibernia Oil Project
Largest of the 4 drilling operations in the area
Construction required huge capital investment to build a platform that could withstand powerful winter storms and icebergs
Now accounts for 12% of all Canadian oil production
Churchill Falls Hydro Project
- opened in 1971 when a dam was built on the Churchill River in Labrador
- 2nd largest hydro plant in North America
- Vast reservoir created by damming the river is known as the Smallwood Reservoir, named after Premier Joey Smallwood
Churchill Falls Power Agreement
- in order for power to be exported from Churchill Falls to the northeastern US, it has to be transmitted through QC
- QC refused to allow this and instead negotiated a deal to buy power produced from the project
- deal allows QC to buy power from Churchill Falls at 1969 prices until 20141
- agreement has resulted in resentment toward QC from residents for NFLD and Labrador
Agriculture in Atlantic Canada
only 5% of land is suitable for agriculture in Maritimes, and 0.1% in NFLD and Labrador
3 main agriculture areas:
1. PEI (potatoes)
2. Saint John River Valley in NM (dairy)
3. Annapolis Valley in NS (fruit orchards)
Annapolis Valley
- low-laying area of NS near the Bay of Fundy and Minas Basin
- the fertile, well drained soil provides the best agricultural area in Atlantic Canada
- After glaciers retreated, sea water flooded the land depositing fine marine-based sediments
Population Trends in Atlantic Canada
- since Confederation, population has grown at a rate well below national average
- during time of high oil prices, approx 7% of workforce in NFLD and Labrador lived in that province but worked in Alberta
Atlantic Commute to Alberta
- At peak of oil and construction boom in Fort McMurray, 10000 workers from NFLD commuted to the area
- air travel, food, and housing were all paid for at company expense
- salaries they returned to their families (up tp $100000 annually) were a boost to the economy of NFLD and Labrador
Rural Population in Atlantic Canada
- 46% rural, more than twice as high as the rest of Canada (20%)
- When European settlers arrived, they searched for small sheltered harbours that would provide access to cod fishing
- Hundreds of villages developed around these harbours; many are now in rapid decline
- Delivering health care, education, and social services to these villages is very costly
- Many young people leave the villages in favour of urban centres
- since 1945, over a thousand villages (with original populations under 200) have disappeared
Newfoundland Resettlement Program
- Joint venture between the federal and NFLD government
- Residents of tiny villages were encouraged to relocated to one of 77 "growth centres"
- if at least 75% of the residents of the village agreed, the received public relocation funds
- over 150 villages were abandoned during this period
Confederation Bridge
- spans the Northumberland Strait and links PEI to NB
- 13 km long
- boost to the tourism and retail sectors on PEI
- traffic count averages 1.7 million vehicles per year and is one of the most expensive toll bridges in the world ($47 one way)
Urbanization in Atlantic Canada
Low growth rate
CMAs: Halifax, St. John's, Fredricton, Saint John, Charlottetown
Halifax
- largest city and urban focal point of Maritimes
- home to a deep, ice-free harbour that makes it ideal as an international port
- economy based on provincial government services, naval base, tourism
St. John's
- city was capital of the British colony of NFLD so architecture is of a distinct style from the rest of Canada
- economy today is based primarily on provincial government services and tourism
Charlottetown
- capital of PEI and home to nearly 1/4 of the island's residents
- known as the Cradle of Confederation since many of the meetings and negotiations which would lead to Confederation were held there
Territorial North Economy
- limited economic performance to non-renewable resources
- region thus vulnerable to sharp fluctuations in both prices and global demand for its exports
- historically, the economy has been subject to boom-and-bust cycles
Territorial North Demographics
- Indigenous residents have high birth rate and low death rate, accounting for high population growth by natural increase
- immigration is minimal
- when the economy in the region stalls, the non-Indigenous residents are more likely to move to the provinces for job opportunities
Governing the Territories
- territories exercise delegated powers under the watch of the federal government (unlike provinces that receive their powers as outlined in the Constitution)
- territories do not have control over their natural resources and heavily depend on the federal government for transfer payments
Territories Physical Geography
- area extends over 4 physiographic regions: Canadian Shield, Interior Plains, Cordillera, Arctic Archipelago
- Vegetation is mostly tundra, mosses, grasses, and some shrubs
- In Arctic Archipelago, most land is base
- Region has many major rivers and thousands of small lakes
Territories Climate
- much of area is officially classified as a desert because precipitation is less than 250 mm per year
- summers are short and snowfall is possible at any time of the year
- in the southern more populated parts of the region, daytime high temperatures often exceed 20*C in July and August
- Much of the region is north of the Arctic Circle (65.5*N line of latitude) - any location north of it will experience at least one day in a year when the sun does not ride and at least one day when the sun does not set
- Aurora Borealis commonly seen at night
Territories and Climate Change
- temperatures are expected to warm in polar regions than any other regions on Earth
- this is due to solar radiation absorption that will occur with the loss of ice and snow
- summers are forecasted to be ice-free in the Arctic Ocean and Hudson's bay by 2050
- Populations of polar bears and caribou will be greatly reduced
Historical Geography of Territorial North
- Area formerly known as Rupert's land
- Britain declared ownership of this land as a result of early discovery and exploration
- Much of the area was grated to the HBC
- until the end of WWII, the federal government generally ignored the North leaving the Indigenous people to live off the land
- after WWII, the Canadian North served as a buffer zone between the Soviet Union and the rest of North America
- In the 1950s, several RADAR stations were constructed along the 70*N line of latitude; these were designed to detect potential Soviet bombers and to allow sufficient response time for US fighter planes to destroy them
Arctic Sovereignty
- national boundaries have yet to be determined in much of the Arctic Ocean basin

there is increased urgency to acquire territory and declare sovereignty because
- pressure from Russia staking claim of Arctic areas
- vast quantities of il lie beneath the Arctic sea floor
- Climate change may turn the area into a commercial shipping route

It is agreed in the international community that Canada owns the islands of the Arctic Archipelago
The ownership of the waterways between the islands is in dispute
The US considers the Northwest Passage an international sea route
In 1988, Prime Minster Brian Mulroney and the US President Ronald Regan signed the Arctic Cooperation Agreement

Canada is concerned about the impacts of oil spills from tankers traversing the North Passage
Arctic Waters Pollution Act
Act passed by Canada's parliament gives Canada the right to control navigation in its sector of the Arctic Ocean
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
Coastal countries have the right to control access to their coast within 12 nautical miles
However, some of the islands in the archipelago are separated by more than 50 nautical miles of water
Indigenous Peoples of the Territorial North
2 groups: Inuit (hunt marine animals) and Dene (primarily live in the NWT & hunt land based animals)

Inuit settlements are mostly located along coasts.
European Explorers
- Martin Frobisher reached Baffin Island while searching for a route to Asia
- A battle ensued between his crew and the Inuit along the coast of a bay
- Many of the Inuit in the area succumbed to disease soon after
- The community of Frobisher Bay was renamed Iqaluit but the bay retains its name
The Northwest Passage
From the time of Frobisher's expedition, many European explorers continued searching for a continuous passage to Asia through the region
Whaling
Early 1800s, European whalers set sail for Davis Strait and Baffin Bay
- As the explorers pushed further west, it became necessary to spend the winter on the nearby land
- Here, they met Inuit and trade developed between the 2 groups
- Inuit would hunt and provide meat for the whalers in return for knives and rifles
Fur Trade
- Demand rose for the Arctic fox pelt in Europe and led to the establishment of trading posts in the region
- Inuit were heavily involved in the fur trade and it dominated the economy
- The continued arrival of Europeans brought measles, smallpox, and other communicable diseases for which the Inuit community had no immunity
Inuit Relocation to Settlements
Federal government oversaw relocation of Inuit to small settlements because:
1. it was seen as necessary to protect them from the hardships of living on the land
2. concentrating people in settlements allowed the federal government to provide them with services efficiently
Impacts of Inuit Relocation to Settlements
Positive for Inuit:
- food security
- access to medical services
- public education
Negative for Inuit:
- loss of traditional culture
- reduction of country food in diet
- social issues related to poverty and unemployment
Inuit Traditional Culture
- strong attachment to the land, country food, ethic of sharing
- hunting is natural to the Inuit but the European Union has banned the import of their seal pelts
- this is response to what they believe is inhumane killing; it has negatively affected the Inuit community
Country Food
Food that is obtained directly from the land or water by means of hunting or fishing
Inuit Life in Settlements
- main source of income is from government assistance
- Inuit settlements have the highest rates of suicide and alcoholism in Canada
- since few Inuit families have abandoned settlement live in favour of living off the land, the positive impacts are seen be the federal government as outweighing the negative impacts
Population in the Territorial North
- almost all residents live in a settlement, town, or city
- mining sites are not associated with resource towns; instead, workers are flown to the mines from Yellowknife
- most settlements do not classify as urban because their populations are below 1000
- approx 50% of the population lives in an urban area; most of the urban population resides in one of the 3 capitals

Urbanization: Whitehorse, Yellowknife, Inuvik, Iqaluit, Hay River
Nunavut Meaning
"our land" in Inuktitut
Nunavut
- official languages: English, French, Inuktitut
- established in 1999 out of a land settlement agreement between Canada and Inuit of the eastern Arctic
- Inuit established a public form of government for the territory such that both Inuit and non-Inuit residents have equal political rights
- one goal of the government is to promote Inuit traditional culture
Economy of the Territorial North
Energy and mining (diamonds, zinc, copper, iron ore) are the main commercial elements of the economy
Primary sector industries comprise 15% of all jobs (compared to 4% in rest of Canada)
Economy based on:
1. Extraction of natural resources
2. Federal transfer payments (referred to as Territorial Formula Financing)
Transportation in Territorial North
- few transportation routes in the region due to high cost of construction and the sparse population
- Nunavut does not have any highways or railroads
- Mining companies have lobbied the federal government to build roads to their sites
- a number of roads connect some mining sites with year-round highways
- winter roads = temporary roads over frozen rivers & lakes
Megaprojects in the North
- resource development projects that are controlled by large multinational corporations
- often have capital costs of more than $1 billion and require several years to complete the construction stage
- since all megaprojects in the North are based on non-renewable resources, the developments have a limited life span
Examples: Mackenzie Gas Project, Norman Wells Oil Field Project, Northwest Territories Diamond Project
Megaprojects and Risk
- high element of risk due to high capital cost
Companies reduce risk by
- arranging for long term sales for the product at a fixed price before proceeding with constructing
- obtaining government assistance in the form of low-interest loans, subsidies, or tax concessions
Megaprojects Negatives
- negative impact on the landscape
- many workers live in provinces and spend their wages in their home communities
- workers from the provinces pay income tax to the province rather than the territorial governments
- the construction equipment and supplies are manufactured outside the region
Mackenzie Gas Project
in 2000, a 1220 km pipeline to transport natural gas through the Mackenzie River Valley was proposed
The pipeline was strongly opposed by Indigenous peoples in the area
As more natural gas deposits have been developed in North America with the emergence of fracking, process has been dropped and the proposal withdrawn
The Norman Wells Oil Field
- pipeline extends from Norman Wells NT to northern Alberta
- project has been successful in meeting its objective (shipping oil to southern markets)
- permafrost melt causing ground subsidies is presenting maintenance challenges
Northwest Territories Diamond Project
- Canada is 3rd largest producer of diamonds in the world due to 3 mines in Yellowknife
- Workers commute to the mines by air on a 14 day in and 14 day out rotation
- Diamond production is the backbone of the mining industry in North though 2 of the 3 mines will be exhausted by 2030
sense of place
Dominant feature of civilization, as believed by geographers
Ontario Strength and Weakness
Strength:
Most favourable conditions for economic growth, industrialization, agriculture, and trade with the US
Weakness:
Manufacturing economy has an uncertain future due to continued globalization
Quebec Strength and Weakness
Strength:
Home to extensive hydroelectric resources and has access to the t. Lawrence River shipping route
Weakness:
Consistent recipient of equalization payments; a struggle to maintain its culture and language in an English dominated country
British Columbia Strength and Weakness
Strength:
A culture centred around ecotopia and a growing population with expanding links to the Pacific Rim
Weakness:
Lower demand has weakened forestry industry
Prairie Provinces Strength and Weakness
Strength:
Contains wealth or natural resources (oil, natural gas, potash) and abundant fertile soil
Weakness:
A sense of alienation from the core has developed partly due to actions of past federal governments
Atlantic Canada Strength and Weakness
Strength:
Offshore petroleum deposits have provided wealth; fishing industry will likely improve over time
Weakness:
Isolated geography and stagnant population due to lack of employment opportunities
Territorial North Strength and Weakness
Strength:
Rich in natural resources, a rapidly growing population from natural resources
Weakness:
Climate change will dramatically impact region; social problems are evident in Inuit settlements
Spatial Framework of Canada
Core regions (ON, QC)

Three types of peripheries:
1. Upward transitional (BC, Prairies)
2. Downward transitional (Atlantic)
3. Resource frontier (Territories)

Frameworks are not rigid - can be adjusted
Canada's Faultlines
1. Centralist/Decentralist
2. Indigenous/Non-Indigenous
3. English/French
4. Newcomer/Oldtimer
Emerging Faultlines
- regional faultline erupted in recent years regarding need to reduce nationwide carbon footprint
- federal government has introduced a policy that requires all provinces to have some form of carbon pricing by 2019
- this would have more of an impact on oil-producing provinces than on ON and QC
- provincial governments of BC and AB have taken different positions on proposed oil pipelines
BC has raised 3 major issues:
- threat of oil spill
- opposition from First Nations and environmental groups
- receiving a fair share of oil revenue
Canada and the Global Economy
- Entry of China into World Trade Organization in 2001 had impacts on the Canadian economy
- manufacturing sector was slowly eroded; low cost goods imported from China have become common
- resource industries have expanded to meet growing demand from Asia (primarily in western provinces)
Future of Canada
- greater share of population and quaternary sector of economy found in metropolises
mid-sized cities grow larger and must make choices between:
- automobile traffic or rapid transit
- suburban expansion or development of downtown core

- most oil and natural gas exports will continue to flow to US but with increasing amounts flowing to Asia
- BC and ON will gain more seats in the House of Commons for the next federal election
- Uncertainties relate to oil prices, the manufacturing industry in ON, impacts of climate change on territories
National Goals for the Future
- greener, urban country where creative class is encouraged and flourishes
- Indigenous residents become more involved in Canada's prosperity and move toward self-government in Nunavik and other areas
- an even more pluralistic society where any tensions that arise quickly subside
- stronger relationship with the US that involves a more open border for which trade relationships can grow and expand
- regional growth driven by knowledge-based economy
- strengthened sense of national identity and unity among all regions
Monterey
City in Mexico responsible for most of the manufacturing
How has the reputation of Mexican workers changed among global manufacturers?
went from second place to first since quality of work improved
What makes Mexico attractive to automobile companies?
- low labour costs
- equal quality of production in Mexico and Canada and US
- distance from states
- more productive on average (by 8%)
- higher profits
- flexibility and workers willing to work
Canada compared to rest of world in oil reserves
Biggest in the world
160000 barrels
Why does extracting oil from Alberta require more energy usage than oil from the Middle
East?
Oil is heavier, and much harder to extract oil, thus more emissions when compared to Middle
East
What would happen to the oil sands if oil prices dropped to a very low amount ($25 per
barrel)?
They will continue to produce; part of the technology requires them to keep producing - hard to stop
What has the government of Alberta done to try to counteract the environmental effects of the
oil sands?
Introduced carbon tax to encourage movement to renewables
What is the total emission cap set by the Alberta government in comparison to the total
emissions output currently occurring?
Currently 70 megatons of greenhouse gas emission produced ; their cap is 100 megatons per year
What fact does the Alberta Minister of the Environment provide to emphasize how important
the oil sands currently are to Canada's economy?
20% of Canada's GDP relies on Alberta's oil sands
How is Hydro-Quebec obtaining the money to finance the Great Whale hydro project?
funded by Americans
How does task force coordinator Matthew Mukash suggest the Cree fight the project if
Quebec will not listen to them?
We must take the fight to the outside world. We will go to the United states. New York and new England and get the American news.
What did the CEO of Hydro-Quebec Armand Couture think was the ulterior motive of the Cree?
That the Cree want the resources for themselves and to form the territory and natural resources
How did the Quebec Minister of Energy Lise Bacon react to the Cree protesting in New York State?
That the Cree are the Quebecers because they are being unfair to other Quebecers. Think the Cree are discrediting Quebecers.
How did the La Grande River and the village of Chisasibi change after the construction of the
La Grande project in 1975?
destroyed, wasteland, social disorder, deaths, flooded graves
How did journalist Francine Pelletier describe the importance of Hydro-Quebec to the province?
The emancipation of Quebec, went from an age of darkness to an age of light
How does Cree activist Dianne Reid describe the way that typical politicians operate?
They are operating in a bind with non-native system and forget the community voice.
On the bill to cancel their contract with Hydro-Quebec, how did the government of New York State vote?
Voted to cancel
In the Massachusetts state legislature, how did Chief Matthew Coon-Come respond when pressed to answer why the Cree gave approval to Hydro-Quebec to expand a previous project?
It will not show that the Cree are soft, and can be bought. To allow Hydro-Quebec to get energy enough to power Quebec and it is a dead waterfall.
How does Cree activist Dianne Reid describe what the fight against Hydro-Quebec was about?
Bring back the pride of the nation, the unity and the power of the nation
Why are Mexico's trade agreements beneficial to automakers?
Can save up to 10 % per vehicle if built in Mexico
Open to global trade
What change has been noticed in the length of the forest fire season in western Canada?
Forest fire season begins a month earlier now than before
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