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Psychology Exam 5

Terms in this set (107)

developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
zygote
the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
embryo
the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
teratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
accommodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
sensorimotor stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
preoperational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
conservation
the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
egocentrism
in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
theory of mind
people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.
concrete operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
formal operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
scaffold
a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking
autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors
stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
attachment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
critical period
an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
imprinting
the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
strange situation
a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leave and then returns, and the child's reactions are observed
secure attachment
demonstrated when infants seem to view their caregiver as a "secure base" for exploration, seeking closeness to him/her and being upset at separation.
insecure attachment
demonstrated by the infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness
temperament
a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
basic trust
according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
self concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
authoritarian
are coercive. They impose rules and expect obedience.
permissive
parents are unrestraining. They make few demands and use little punishment. They may be indifferent, unresponsive, or unwilling to set limits.
negligent
parents are uninvolved. They are neither demanding nor responsive. They are carless, inattentive, and do not seek to have a close relationship with their children.
authoritative
parents are confrontative. They are both demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules, but, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion and allow exceptions.
sex
in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define males and females
gender
in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female
aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
relational aggression
an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing
role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
gender role
a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females
gender identity
our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two
social learning theory
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
gender typing
the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
androgyny
displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics
transgender
an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex
adolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
puberty
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
identity
our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
social identity
the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships
intimacy
in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood
emerging adulthood
a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults
menopause
the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
cross-sectional study
research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time
longitudinal study
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
neurocognitive disorders (NCDs)
acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer's disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. In older adults neurocognitive disorders were formerly called dementia
Alzheimer's disease
a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with an onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities
social clock
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
attitude
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
peripheral route persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness
central route persuasion
occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
cognitive dissonance theory
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes
norms
understood rules for accepted and expected behavior
conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
normative social influence
influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
informational social influence
influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality
social facilitation
improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
group polarization
the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
prejudice
an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.
discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
just-world phenomenon
the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
ingroup
people with whom we share a common identity
outgroup
those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
scapegoat theory
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
other-race effect
the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races
frustration-agression principle
the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate aggression
social script
culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations
mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
passionate love
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship
compassionate love
the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
equity
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it
self-disclosure
the act of revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
alturism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
social exchange theory
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
reciprocity norm
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
social responsibility norm
an expectation that people will help those needing their help
conflict
a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
social trap
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior
mirror-image perceptions
mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive
self-fulfilling prophecy
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
post conventional morality
Kohlberg's level where actions are judged "right" because they flow from people's rights-or from self-defined basic ethical principles
preconventional morality
Kohlberg's level where mortality focuses on self-interest: You obey the rules to avoid punishment or to obtain a tangible reward
conventional morality
Kohlberg's level where morality focuses on caring for others and on upholding laws and rules, simply because you should follow the laws and rules
prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future
chameleon effect
natural (unconscious) tendency to imitate other peoples speech, inflections & physical movements
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