Upgrade to remove ads
Only $35.99/year

Exam 7 Principles of Biology (Biol 198) Robbie Bear KSU

Terms in this set (384)

Which of the following characteristics is NOT shared by most animals?
(QZ)
cell walls
The germ layer known as ectoderm is the source of cells that give rise to the _____. (Fill in the blank with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
Nerves and Skin
_____ is a type of connective tissue and _____ is a type of epithelial tissue. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
Bone; lining of the digestive tract
A/An _____ is a group of one type of cell performing a single function and a/an _____ is many types of different types of cells interacting to perform a larger task. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
tissue; organ
All chordates share what key feature(s)?
(QZ)
Post-anal tail
What are 3 adjectives that best describe animalistic characteristics?
Multicellular
Heterotrophic
Eukaryotic
No particular organization (no equal halves). No symmetry.
Asymmetrical
Circularly organized. If you cut it vertically, you get two similar halves. Coral, jellyfish, starfish.
Radial symmetry
Organized with left and right halves. Only one cut down the middle would yield 2 equal halves. Vertebrates.
Bilateral symmetry
What is the top side of a vertebrate and other bilateral organisms?
Dorsal side
What is the bottom side of a vertebrate and other bilateral organisms?
Ventral side
What is the front side of a vertebrate and other bilateral organisms?
Anterior end
What is the back side of a vertebrate and other bilateral organisms?
Posterior end
What is the top side of radially symmetric organisms?
aboral
What is the bottom side of radially symmetric organisms? This is where the mouth is located.
Oral
Germ layer on the outside layer of the body. Forms skin and nervous system.
Ectoderm
Ectoderm germ level form what two body parts?
Skin
Nervous system
The middle germ layer. Mostly muscle and bones.
Mesoderm
Mesoderm germ level form what two body parts?
Muscle
Bones
The inner germ layer. Forms intestines and other internal organs.
Endoderm
Endoderm germ level form what body parts?
Intestines and other internal organs
Some animals only have two germ layers. Which one is missing?
Mesoderm
What do Cnidaria (jellyfish) and Ctenophora have in common? Think about germ layers.
They both lack a mesoderm
What type of organism do you predict would lack a mesodermal layer?
Aquatic invertebrates
How many germ levels do organ level organisms have? What are some examples of organ level organisms?
3 germ levels. Everything except for Cnidaria and Porifera. Humans, birds, fish, many many more.
How many germ levels do tissue level organisms have? What are some examples of tissue level organisms?
2 germ levels. Cnidaria (jellyfish)
How many germ levels do cellular level organisms have? What are some examples of cellular level organisms?
No germ levels. Porifera
Fluid-filled space around internal organs.
Body cavity
Internal body cavity lined with cells derived from the mesoderm.
Coelom
Do all animals possess a body cavity?
No
Fluid-filled cavity is present, but only the outside is lined with mesoderm and organs are not completely anchored.
Pseudocoelom
What are 6 advantages to having a coelom?
1. Internal organs can be held in place with connective tissue (mesenteries).
2. Further specialization and complexity of organs is possible.
3. Independent movement of internal organs and body wall is possible. Ex: digestive wall can be more muscular without displacing other organs.
4. Internal fluid can protect the internal environment and aid in movement of materials.
5. A fluid-filled cavity can function as a "hydrostatic skeleton," where the animal can move by exerting hydraulic pressure on the fluid in the coelom.
6. Overall, coelems allowed animals to evolve more complex internal structure and to be more flexible in their movement.
What is meant by the term "segmented body?"
Body is divided into repeating units.
Do humans have a segmented body?
Yes, we are segmented because we have repeating, specialized body parts.
What is an advantage of a segmented body?
There is more independent movement of body parts and more specialization of body parts.
What is cephalization?
Development of a structure at one end of the body with specialized feeding and sensory structures (head).
What are 2 advantages to cephalization?
1. Since the head (anterior) end of a mobile animal encounters objects in the environment first, it is advantageous if this end gathers and processes information as fast as possible. So, many of the major sense organs are located there, as well as the processing center (brain).
2. It is also advantageous to have feeding structures near the head because if food is located, the animal will want to eat it as quickly as possible.
What is considered most evolved or most complex with regards to symmetry?
Bilateral symmetry is found in the most evolved animals.
What is considered most evolved or most complex with regards to germ layers?
3 germ layers are found in the most evolved animals.
What is considered most evolved or most complex with regards to body cavities?
The most evolved animals have body cavities.
What is considered most evolved or most complex with regards to segmentation?
The most evolved animals have segmentation.
What is considered most evolved or most complex with regards to cephalization?
The most evolved animals have heads.
What are the four types of animal tissue?
Epithelial
Connective
Nervous
Muscle
Layers or groups that all have the same structure and function.
Tissue
The tissue that lines major bodily structures.
Epithelial tissue
What are the 3 types of epithelial tissue?
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Tissue that provides protection and support (both physical and material) of other tissues and organs.
Connective Tissue
What are 4 examples of connective tissue?
1. Adipose tissue
2. Blood
3. Bone
4. Cartilage
Tissue that coordinates many bodily functions in response to both internal and external stimuli.
Nervous tissue
What is an example of nervous tissue?
Neurons
Tissue that contracts to move body parts.
Muscle tissue
What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?
Skeletal
Cardiac
Smooth
Consists of multiple different kinds of tissue to perform one function.
Organ
_____ is made up of different organs that function together.
Organ system
Name the vertebrate organ system for each life process:
Coordinate body activities
Nervous and endocrine systems
Name the vertebrate organ system for each life process:
Acquire materials and energy
Skeletal, muscular, and digestive systems
Name the vertebrate organ system for each life process:
Maintain body shapes
Skeletal and muscular systems
Name the vertebrate organ system for each life process:
Exchange gases
Respiratory and cardiovascular systems
Name the vertebrate organ system for each life process:
Transport materials
Circulatory system
Name the vertebrate organ system for each life process:
Protect against disease
Lymphatic system
Name the vertebrate organ system for each life process:
Excrete wastes
Urinary and digestive systems
Name the vertebrate organ system for each life process:
Produce offspring
Reproductive system
Maintenance of relatively constant internal conditions in an animal.
Homeostasis
What are 3 types of internal environmental parameters does an organism need to regulate?
1. Temperature
2. Concentration of chemicals in blood
3. pH of blood
Change in one direction initiates a response from the integrator that causes a change in the opposite direction.
Negative feedback loop
Response from the integrator tends to change the parameter in the same direction as the change detected by the receptor.
Positive feedback loop
Regulation of internal temperature. Type of homeostasis.
Thermoregulation
The body's response to a hot or cold temperature is an example of the _________ feedback loop.
negative
Blood clotting at the site of a wound that prompts more platelets to coagulate is an example of a ______ feedback loop.
positive
What is the role of the nervous system in thermoregulation?
Detects the temperature change.
What is the role of the circulatory system in thermoregulation?
Blood vessels dilate or contract
What is the role of the digestive system in thermoregulation?
Digestion of food creates warmth.
What is the role of the muscular system in thermoregulation?
Shivering creates warmth
In which organ of the digestive system does most of the digestion & absorption of nutrients occur?
(QZ)
Small intestine
Suppose you just ate a big Chipotle carnitas burrito. The protein in the pork is digested in the _____ and fats in the cheese are digested in the _____. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
stomach and small intestine; small intestine
_____ increase the surface area of the small intestine and function to _____. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
Villi & microvilli; absorb nutrients from digested food
Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the _____ of the heart, is moved to the _____, and is pumped out to the body tissues via the _____. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
left atrium, left ventricle; aorta
Breathing and aerobic cellular respiration (ATP regeneration) are linked by movement of _____ through _____. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
oxygen and carbon dioxide; circulatory system
What are the reactants of aerobic cellular respiration?
Glucose and oxygen
What are the products of aerobic cellular respiration?
CO₂, H₂O, ATP
Glucose is a reactant for cellular respiration. How does the body obtain glucose?
Through the digestive system
Oxygen is a reactant for cellular respiration. How does the body obtain oxygen?
Through the respiratory system
A digestive system with two openings.
Complete digestive system
A digestive system with one opening.
Incomplete digestive system
What is the overall task of a complete digestive system?
Intake food, digest food and absorb its nutrients, give off indigestible materials as waste.
Digestion begins with mechanical breakdown in this body part. Carbohydrates are first digested here.
Mouth
Several small, accessory organs that secrete amylase along with other enzymes and helpful substances. They provide lubrication so the food travels through the digestive system smoothly. Amylase begins enzymatic digestion of starch. It buffers for pH.
Salivary glands
Muscular passage between the mouth and stomach that moves food using peristalsis.
Esophagus
The rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle to move food along the digestive tract.
Peristalsis
Accessory organ that secretes bile into the gall bladder. The bile breaks down large fat molecules. This body part also removes toxins from the blood.
Liver
Accessory organ that secretes major digestive enzymes (proteases, lipases, amylase, nucleases, etc) and bicarbonate (buffer) to neutralize the acidic contents of the stomach. Empties into the small intestine.
Pancreas
Muscular sack that produces acid and contributes to the mechanical breakdown of food. Helps digest protein. Used for temporary storage of mostly sterile food. HCl and pepsin are both very acidic compounds found here.
Stomach
Accessory organ that stores bile and secretes it into the small intestine.
Gall bladder
Long, muscular tube where enzymatic digestion occurs at a near neutral pH and nutrients are absorbed. Villi and microvilli increase its surface area.
Small intestine
Digestive organ where H₂O, ions, vitamin K (produced by bacteria) are absorbed and wastes are eliminated.
Large intestine
Are sugars the only biological molecule that can be used as an energy source?
No, proteins, carbs, and lipids can all be broken down into a sugar for cellular respiration.
Give the order of 9 events in the circulatory system.
1. Deoxygenated blood from the body returns to the heart via the vena cava.
2. Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium.
3. Deoxygenated blood enters the right ventricle
4. Deoxygenated blood is pumped to the lungs via the pulmonary artery.
5. Gas diffusion occurs within the lungs.
6. Oxygenated blood leaves the lungs via the pulmonary vein.
7. Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium.
8. Oxygenated blood enters the left ventricle.
9. Oxygenated blood is pumped out to the body via the aorta.
What are the 3 steps from the circulatory system present in the pulmonary circuit?
4. Deoxygenated blood is pumped to the lungs via the pulmonary artery.
5. Gas diffusion occurs within the lungs.
6. Oxygenated blood leaves the lungs via the pulmonary vein.
What are the steps from the circulatory system that represent the systemic circuit?
1. Deoxygenated blood from the body returns to the heart via the vena cava.
9. Oxygenated blood is pumped out to the body via the aorta.
Does the pulmonary artery carry oxygenated or deoxygenated blood?
Deoxygenated blood
Does the pulmonary vein carry oxygenated or deoxygenated blood?
Oxygenated blood
Narrow-diameter tubes that fit red blood cells in single-file lines and are sites for exchange of nutrients, waste, and oxygen with tissues at the cellular level.
Capillaries
What is the specific function of capillaries?
Carry red blood cells and exchange of nutrients, waste, and oxygen with tissues at the cellular level.
How does blood flow through the pulmonary circuit influence the structure of the various heart chambers?
The heart needs structures to pump blood throughout the body and pump to and from the lungs. The pulmonary circuit pumps blood to and from the lungs.
What is the purpose of the pulmonary circuit?
Pump blood through the lungs back to the heart. Re-oxygenate blood.
Compare and contrast arteries and veins with regard to structure and function.
Arteries carry oxygenated blood (except for pulmonary circuit) and are typically larger.
Veins carry deoxygenated blood (except for the pulmonary circuit) and are typically smaller.
What are the four basic components of blood?
Plasma
Platelets
Red blood cells
White blood cells
Liquid portion of the blood with water, protein, salts, lipids, and glucose.
Plasma
Cell fragments in the blood that are responsible for coagulation.
Platelets
Cells in the blood that carry oxygen.
Red blood cells
Cells in the blood that fight disease.
White blood cells
During inhalation, the air is first inhaled into the...
nasal cavity
After passing through the nasal cavity, the air enters the ______, or the throat.
pharynx
After passing through the pharynx, air goes to the ________, or the voice box.
larynx
After passing through the larynx, air goes to the ________. Its main function is to funnel the inhaled air to the lungs and the exhaled air back out of the body.
trachea
There are two primary _______, then many smaller ones known as secondary and tertiary _______. The primary ones connect the lungs and the trachea. The secondary and tertiary ones spread throughout the lungs.
Bronchi
Specialized respiratory tissue that contains bronchi and bronchiole. Sort of the connector between the respiratory and circulatory systems.
Lung
Responsible for gas exchange. They are tethered to the end of bronchioles and keep in close contact with capillaries to ensure that oxygen will diffuse from "this" into the blood and be distributed to the cells of the body.
alveoli
What structure in the digestive system does the digestion of complex carbohydrates start?
Mouth
What structure in the digestive system does the digestion of complex carbohydrates finish?
Small intestine
What are the monomers of complex carbohydrates? Think about the cellular respiration equation.
Glucose
What enzyme produced by the pancreas digest carbohydrates?
Pancreatic amylase
Briefly explain how carbohydrates are moved from the lumen of the small intestine to the circulatory system.
Polysaccharides enter epithelial cell in the small intestine, then they enter the capillary.
What component of blood transports carbohydrates?
Plasma
In what structure of the digestive system does protein digestion start?
Stomach
In what structure of the digestive system does protein digestion finish?
Small intestine
What are the monomers of proteins?
Amino acids
What 4 enzymes are produced by the pancreas that digest proteins?
Trypsin
Elastase chymotrypsin
Aminopeptidase
Dipeptidase
Briefly explain how amino acids are moved from the lumen of the small intestine to the circulatory system.
They move into the epithelial cell of the small intestine via transport proteins and they then enter the capillaries.
What component of blood transports amino acids?
Plasma
In what structure of the digestive system does lipid digestion start and finish?
Small intestine
What enzyme produced by the pancreas digests lipids?
Lipase
What are the products of the digestion of lipids?
Fatty acids and glycerol
What molecule produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder assists with digestion of fats?
Bile
Briefly explain
...
To make a large fat globule smaller. It does not require the breaking of bonds.
Emulsify
Briefly explain how fatty acids and glycerol are moved from the lumen of the small intestine into the lymphatic system and then to the circulatory system.
Components of lipids enter the epithelial cell via diffusion. They then form triglyceride, leave the cell via exocytosis into lacteal of lymph vessels.
How is water movement related to and/or dependent upon absorption of biological molecules?
Water also moves to areas of higher ion concentration.
Water and ions are needed for efficient function of digestive enzymes.
Organic nutrients that can't be synthesized and must be obtained from food in small amounts.
Vitamins
Inorganic nutrients that can't be synthesized and must be obtained from food in small amounts.
Minerals
What is the difference between vitamins and minerals?
Vitamins are organic, minerals are inorganic.
Why are vitamins and minerals important?
Having too little results in disease, having too much results in disorders. They cannot be produced by the body.
How do animals acquire vitamins and minerals?
From their diet
In what structure of the respiratory system does gas exchange occur?
Alveoli
What is hemoglobin and what does it do?
Protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen.
What component of blood transports oxygen?
Red blood cells
What component of the blood transports carbon dioxide?
The water of the blood (plasma)
What chemical transformations does carbon dioxide undergo during transportation in the circulatory system?
CO₂→carbonic acid→bicarbonate
What is the difference between a complete and incomplete digestive system?
Complete - 2 openings
Incomplete - 1 opening
What are the adaptations that herbivores have that allow them to extract energy from plant material?
They have many cellulose digesting bacteria
What are the 5 differences between an open and closed circulatory system?
Open: less complex, requires less energy
Closed: All blood is contained in vessels, higher blood pressure, more efficient
In the evolution of the vertebrate heart, what is the general trend and what are the advantages of a four-chambered heart with a system and pulmonary circuit?
The trend is increasing number of chambers. With 4 chambers, the organism can obtain higher levels of oxygen, so they can produce more energy, maintain high metabolism, maintain high activity levels, and maintain a steady body temperature.
What are 4 adaptations that animals used for gas exchange?
1. Whole surface gas exchange
2. Gills
3. Trachea and diffusion
4. Lungs
What did we learn in the lipase/bile test tube experiment?
The most acidic solutions (the solutions with the most digestion) contained lipase and bile at body temperature.
In the lipase/bile test tube experiment, the acidic solutions underwent the most digestion. Why is this?
The digestion of lipids creates glycerol and fatty acids, so the increase in the product (fatty acids) decreased the pH.
In the lipase/bile test tube experiment, what effect did bile have on the progress of this digestive reaction?
Bile increased the rate
Based on the lipase/bile test tube experiment, what do you predict about fat digestion in a person who has had their gallbladder removed?
They couldn't digest as much fat because the gall bladder stores bile which increases the rate of lipid digestion.
Biochemically speaking, how do we eat?
We hydrolyze polymers down and transport these monomers into cells.
Why is gas exchange necessary?
We need oxygen for cellular respiration and we don't have to space to store a wasteful byproduct like carbon dioxide.
Erythrocytes are better known as...
red blood cells
Leukocytes are better known as...
white blood cells
Thrombocytes are better known as...
platelets
Be able to identify arteries, veins, and capillaries in the vertebrate cardiovascular system.
On 26.3 of the textbook.
Be able to identify the major structures of the mammalian heart and know the blood flow.
On 26.3 of the textbook.
The resting potential of a typical neuron is about _____, this charge gradient is due to the constant activity of a protein known as the _____. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choices from the list provided.)
(QZ)
-70 mV; sodium-potassium pump
When a neuron is depolarized, _____ ions rush into the cell and the inside of the cell quickly becomes _____ with respect to the extracellular fluid. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
sodium; positive
The peripheral nervous system contains the _____. (Fill in the blank with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
Both sensory neurons and motor neurons
When blood glucose is too high, _____ is released from _____ which instructs body cells to _____. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
insulin; beta cells of the pancreas; take up glucose
The pituitary hormones _____ and _____ stimulate formation of both male and female gametes in vertebrates. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
FSH; LH
What are the 3 functions of the nervous system?
1. Collect information from external and internal environments using sensory neurons.
2. Process incoming information and determine an action/reaction using interneurons.
3. Respond using motor neurons.
What is the functional unit of the nervous system?
Neuron
Projections of a nervous system cell that carry signals toward the cell body.
Dendrites
Fatty coating that's found on axons of some neurons. Acts like insulation on electrical wire and increases the speed of action potential.
Myelin sheath
Single, long projection from a nervous system cell that carries signals away from the cell body.
Axon
Type of neuron that is part of peripheral nervous system that carries impulses away from the central nervous system. Can be voluntary (skeletal muscles) or involuntary (internal organs).
Motor neurons
Know the parts of a neuron.
On page 428 of studio manual.
What are the two main parts of the central nervous system?
Brain
Spinal cord
What are the three types of neurons?
Sensory neurons
Interneurons
Motor neurons
Type of neuron that is part of peripheral nervous system that carries impulses from receptors to the central nervous system. They can be voluntary or involuntary.
Sensory neurons
Type of neuron that belongs to the central nervous system. They filter and process incoming information and formulate a response.
Interneurons
What are the 2 components of the peripheral nervous system?
Sensory (afferent) neurons
Motor (efferent) neurons
Consists of glands and organs that produce and respond to hormones as a means of coordinating physiological processes to maintain homeostasis.
Endocrine system
What is the function of the hypothalamus and where is it located?
Region of the brain that receives input from the nervous system and secretes numerous hormones in response. It controls many aspects of homeostasis.
Where does the pituitary lay in relation to the hypothalamus?
It is very close to the hypothalamus
What are the two parts to the pituitary?
Anterior pituitary
Posterior pituitary
What two hormones are produced by the anterior pituitary?
FSH
LH
Hormone that works with LH to ensure proper functioning of gonads.
FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone)
Hormone that works with FSH to ensure proper functioning of gonads.
LH (lutenizing hormones)
What two hormones are produced/secreted by the posterior pituitary?
Oxytocin
ADH
Hormone produced by the hypothalamus, secreted by pituitary. Functions during childbirth and lactation. Also implicated in formation of social bonds.
Oxytocin
Hormone that affects water balance through the kidneys.
ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
Large gland in the neck. It makes thyroid hormone using iodine.
Thyroid
Where is the adrenal gland located and what does it produce?
On top of each kidney. It produces epinephrine and adrenaline.
The two hormones that prepare the body for "fight or flight" responses.
Epinephrine and adrenaline
Organs of reproduction.
Gonads
What do the testes produce?
Testosterone
Hormone that promotes male secondary sexual characteristics and sperm production.
Testosterone
What two hormones are produced by the ovaries?
Estrogen
Progesterone
Hormone that promotes female secondary sexual characteristics and egg production.
Estrogen
Hormone that helps regulate the menstrual cycle and maintain pregnancy.
Progesterone
Part of the digestive system, but it is also a gland that produces hormones.
Pancreas
What two hormones are produced by the pancreas?
Insulin
Glucagon
Hormone that reduces blood glucose levels.
Insulin
Hormone that increases blood glucose levels.
Glucagon
Organ of urinary system that stores urine for excretion. In females, it is located ventral to the vagina.
Bladder
Produces nutrient rich fluid that's added to the semen. Only in males.
Prostate gland
For males, it is part of both the reproductive and urinary system. Tube through which urine and semen pass from the body. Urine is blocked during ejaculation. For females, it's the only part of the urinary system and transports urine out of the body.
Urethra
Long, slender ducts that transport sperm through epididymis to urethra.
vas Deferens
Location of sperm maturation and storage. During sexual arousal, contractions "here" transport sperm into the vas deferens.
Epididymis
Location of meiosis in males. They act as glands and produce the hormone testosterone.
Testes
Male copulatory organ. Also functions as a conduit for urine.
Penis
Know the anatomy of the male reproductive system.
On page 431 of lab manual.
Know the anatomy of the female reproductive system.
On page 431 of lab manual.
Long, slender tubes that transport the egg to the uterus. This is where fertilization occurs, where Meiosis II is completed, and where the embryo begins dividing.
Fallopian tubes
Site of embryo and fetal development.
Uterus
Female copulatory organ and birth canal.
Vagina
The electrical gradient across the membrane when a cell is not actively conducting impulses.
Resting potential
Which channel (sodium or potassium) opens first?
Sodium channel
Which channel (sodium or potassium) flows more quickly?
Sodium channel
What happens when the external concentration of sodium is decreased by half?
The resting potential is unchanged. No movement of ions. There is no action potential.
Why is sodium necessary for an action potential?
A high concentration of sodium is needed outside the cell so it can rush in. When the Na⁺ isn't present in high concentrations, there is no action potential.
What happens when the internal potassium concentration is decreased by a half?
The resting potential is higher because K⁺ acts as the "negative" ion compared to the high concentration of positive sodium. This makes the resting potential "less negative," or greater. The sodium flux doesn't need to be as great now.
Why is the resting potential higher when K⁺ internal concentration is less?
The resting potential is higher because K⁺ acts as the "negative" ion compared to the high concentration of positive sodium. This makes the resting potential "less negative," or greater.
Which ion gradient (sodium or potassium) controls the action potential?
Sodium
Which ion gradient (sodium or potassium) controls the resting potential?
Potassium
On the millivolts vs time graph, where is the resting potential?
The horizontal line from 0-3 milliseconds.
On the millivolts vs time graph, where is the depolarization?
The increase in voltage from 3-4 milliseconds.
On the millivolts vs time graph, where is the repolarization?
The decrease in voltage from 4-6 milliseconds.
What was the name of the lethal substance found in puffer fish and other animals?
Tetrodotoxin
When there was just 1 nM of tetrodotoxin in the body, what happened to the sodium flux?
The sodium flux was delayed and not as much sodium crosses the membrane.
When there was just 1 nM of tetrodotoxin in the body, what happened to the potassium flux?
It is unaffected.
When there was just 1 nM of tetrodotoxin in the body, what happened to the action potential?
It is delayed.
When there was 2 nM of tetrodotoxin in the body, what happened to the sodium flux?
No Na⁺ ions cross the membrane, so there is no Na⁺ flux.
When there was just 2 nM of tetrodotoxin in the body, what happened to the potassium flux?
No potassium flux. Sodium does not move, so neither does potassium.
When there was just 2 nM of tetrodotoxin in the body, what happened to the action potential?
No action potential
What is positive feedback?
When the product of a process increases the further production of this product.
What is negative feedback?
When the product of a process stops the further production of this product.
How does information move from one nerve cell to another? There are 5 steps.
1. Action potential one neuron A.
2. Ca⁺ flows into the cell (neuron A).
3. Neurotransmitter is released via exocytosis from the axon of neuron A.
4. Neurotransmitter binds to the receptors in the dendrite of neuron B.
5. Action potential in neuron B.
A junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter.
Synapse
How is information transferred across a synapse?
With a neurotransmitter
The endocrine system, via the actions of hormones, is a critical contributor to...
homeostasis
Chemicals that are released by cells into body fluids (usually blood) and which act on target cells.
Hormones
How are hormones transported around the body?
Via body fluids (usually blood)
What are the two types of hormones?
Steroid hormones
Peptide hormones
What are the 3 characteristics that define a steroid hormone?
1. Readily pass through the plasma membrane of a cell because they are soluble in lipids.
2. Have receptors inside the target cell.
3. Affect protein production by activating DNA/RNA.
What are the 3 characteristics that define a peptide hormone?
1. Cannot pass through the plasma membrane without a channel.
2. Bind with receptors which are embedded in outer surface of the plasma membrane.
3. Interact with receptors to activate molecules known as second messengers. The second messengers initiate a chain of reactions which ultimately activate other existing proteins usually no new proteins are made.
What mechanism ensures that hormones are specific to particular target cells?
Receptors
What are the 3 general parts of hormone action?
1. Signal reception
2. Signal transduction
3. Cellular response (induction)
Occurs when the hormone is "recognized" by a cell when it binds with a particular protein called a receptor.
Reception
Intermediate step that essentially activates a set of intermediary complexes.
Transduction
Cellular response, when the cell begins doing the task directed by the hormone.
Induction
What are the 2 hormones related to blood sugar that are created by the pancreas?
Glucagon
Insulin
The hormone produced by the pancreas that goes to the liver. It makes changes to glucose. It increases blood glucose levels.
Glucagon
The hormone produced by the pancreas that goes to the liver and body cells to take up glucose. Decrease blood glucose levels.
Insulin
How is the release of insulin and glucagon a negative feedback?
As more insulin or glucagon is produced, the blood sugar problem should be fixed, so less insulin or glucagon should be needed.
What problems can arise if normal pancreatic functioning is disrupted?
The body would not be able to maintain blood sugar levels because they wouldn't have glucagon or insulin.
How is insulin and glucagon a homeostatic system?
They maintain blood sugar levels.
What are the 3 phases of digestive regulation?
Cephalic phase
Gastric phase
Intestinal phase
What happens during the cephalic phase of digestion? (3 steps)
1. Stimulus = see, smell, or think about food. This stimulus is sent to the brain.
2. Automatic nervous system sends messages to the stomach.
3. Stomach secretes substances (HCl, mucus, pepsin) to prepare for food.
What happens during the gastric phase of the digestive system? (3 steps)
1. Stimulus = stretching of sensors in stomach wall (distension), presence of undigested materials.
2. Local nerves order secretion of stomach juices (HCl, mucus, pepsin) and the hormone gastrin, and stimulates muscle contraction.
3. Gastrin also feeds back through the bloodstream to increase production of stomach juices and stimulate muscle contraction.
What happens during the intestinal phase? (3 things)
1. Stimulus = chyme stretching the small intestine and presence of lipids and carbohydrates.
2. Nerves inhibit secretion of stomach juices and gastrin and inhibits muscle contraction.
3. Hormones stimulate release of bile (from liver and gall bladder) and digestive enzymes (from pancreas) and inhibits stomach secretions and muscle contractions.
Describe the chemicals contained in birth control pills and explain the function they have that prevents pregnancy.
The pill contains estrogen and progesterone, which prevent ovulation (when an ovary releases an egg).
What are the 4 characteristics of asexual reproduction?
1. Requires less energy
2. Rapid population growth
3. Single parent
4. Offspring genetically identical to each other and to parent
What are the 4 characteristics of sexual reproduction?
1. Offspring are better adapted to environmental change.
2. Less likely to become extinct.
3. Two parents
4. Each offspring is genetically unique.
What are the 4 main sex hormones in males?
GnRH
FSH
LH
Testosterone
What are the 5 main sex hormones in females?
GnRH
FSH
LH
Estrogen
Progesterone
Explain the process of the production and release of each of the 4 male sex hormones.
1. GnRH - Produced by hypothalamus. Triggers the release of FSH and LH.
2. FSH - Produced by pituitary. Stimulates spermatogenesis
3. LH - Produced by pituitary. Triggers the release of testosterone.
4. Testosterone - Produced in testes. Stimulates spermatogenesis and inhibits GnRH.
How are the hypothalamus, pituitary, and gametes related in the male body? (4 steps)
1. The process starts in the hypothalamus with the production and release of GnRH.
2. This spurs the production and release of FSH and LH in the pituitary.
3. LH triggers the release of testosterone.
4. FSH and testosterone (location of spermatogenesis) stimulate spermatogenesis, or the creation of gametes.
Explain the process of the production and release of each of the 5 female sex hormones.
1. GnRH - Produced by hypothalamus. Triggers release of FSH and LH.
2. FSH - Produced by pituitary. Stimulates growth of follicles and release of estrogen.
3. LH - Produced by pituitary. Spike causes ovulation.
4. Estrogen - Produced by ovaries. Causes spike in FSH and LH. Inhibits GnRH.
5. Progesterone - Produced by ovaries. Inhibits GnRH, FSH, and LH. Stimulates growth of endometrium.
How are the hypothalamus, pituitary, and gametes related in the female body? (4 steps)
1. GnRH is produced in the hypothalamus. It triggers the release of FSH and LH in the pituitary.
2. FSH stimulates the release of estrogen in the ovaries (site of ovulation).
3. A spike in LH causes ovulation (creation of gametes).
4. Estrogen is produced by ovaries and it causes a spike in FSH and LH (spike in LH causes ovulation).
Mechanoreceptors are the basis for the sense(s) of _____ and _____. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
hearing; touch
Viruses are classified as _____. (Fill in the blank with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
acellular parasites
An _____ is a substance that is foreign to the body of an organism and that stimulates an immune response. (Fill in the blank with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
antigen
_____ are part of the adaptive immunity of an organism; and _____ are part of the innate immunity. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
T cells; Natural killer cells
Antibodies do what?
(QZ)
Bind pathogens and mark them for destruction by immune cells
What are the five basic senses?
Olfaction (smell)
Gustation (taste)
Equilibrium (balance and body position)
Vision
Hearing
Which two senses directly detect chemicals in the environment? What are the names of the sensory cells involved in these senses?
Olfaction (smell) and gustation (taste). Chemoreceptors.
Which sense directly detects electromagnetic radiation? What are the names of the sensory cells involved?
Vision; photoreceptors
What two senses depend on cells called mechanoreceptors?
Equilibrium and hearing
What system receives signals from the senses and uses that information to properly respond to the environment?
Nervous system
What is a reflex arc?
Short series of nerve cells consisting of a sensory neuron, an interneuron in spinal cord, and motor neuron.
Using the example of touching a hot candle, explain the reflex arc in 4 steps.
1. The receptor on the skin detects the heat from candle.
2. This impulse is sent to the sensory neuron.
3. The impulse is then sent to the interneuron in the spinal cord.
4. The impulse is then sent to the motor neuron, which contracts the arm muscle, moving the hand/skin away from the harmful candle.
What are the 5 functions of the integumentary system? The integumentary system protects the body from what 5 things?
Protect body from:
1. Physical damage
2. Invasion from other organisms
3. Dehydration
4. Overheating
5. Freezing
Why is the skin considered an organ?
It is made up of tissue that work together to perform a similar function.
Outermost layer of skin made up of epithelial tissues provide waterproof barrier.
Epidermis
Thicker, middle layer of skin that contains connective tissues, hair follicles (or other coating like feathers and scales) with attendant muscles, sweat glands, sensory nerves, and blood vessels.
Dermis
Deeper layer of skin consisting largely of fat (provides insulation) and other connective tissue.
Hypodermis
What are the 3 main functions of the lymphatic system?
1. Absorb intercellular fluid that has leaked from capillaries and return it to circulatory system.
2. Absorb digested fat from the villi of small intestine and transport it to circulatory system.
3. Manufacture, store, and transport many components of immunity that protect the body from invading organisms.
What are the 4 functions of lymph nodes?
1. B lymphocytes divide and differentiate within lymph nodes.
2. Nodes also contain T-lymphocytes and macrophages.
3. As lymph flows through the nodes, the macrophages engulf and digest viruses, bacteria, other micro organisms, and debris from damaged cells.
4. Nodes function as a filter for lymph.
What are the 3 functions of the spleen?
1. Filters microorganisms and cellular debris from the blood.
2. B-lymphocytes multiply and differentiate inside the spleen.
3. Stores extra blood cells and platelets.
What are 2 functions of the thymus gland?
1. Secretes group of hormones called thymasin, which are involved in maturation of T-lymphocytes.
2. Stem cells produced in bone marrow mature into specialized T-lymphocytes in the thymus.
What is the function of the red bone marrow?
Manufactures blood cells
What is immunity?
Ability of the body to defend itself against foreign cells or viruses, and even against abnormal body cells like those in cancer.
What is the difference between innate (non-specific) defense and adaptive (specific) immunity?
Innate defense that we are born with that doesn't act differently with different pathogens. Adaptive immunity is acquired and attacks pathogens differently depending on the type.
List and explain the body's 5 innate defenses.
1. Physical barriers - prevent or inhibit entry of invaders.
2. Inflammatory reactions - involve phagocytic white blood cells like macrophages.
3. Protective proteins, such as complement proteins.
4. Cells that kill other cells in a nonspecific way
5. Fever
What are the roles of cells known as macrophages?
Engulf and digest foreign pathogens.
Explain the body's adaptive immunity.
Unlike the innate defense, it has specific responses. It defends against specific things to which the body has been previously exposed. Includes B cells and T cells.
What is the size of viruses that infect animals? How much smaller are these than animal cells?
100 nm. 1/500 as large as animal cells.
What are the two common components of viruses?
Nucleic acid
Proteins (usually in form of capsid)
All viruses have nucleic acids and proteins; however, some viruses have a third component. What is this component?
External membrane
What is the genetic material of a virus and what are the two major groups of viruses relating to genetic material.
The genetic material is nucleic acids. Viruses can be categorized by either having DNA or RNA.
What two principal characteristics are used to classify viruses into taxonomic groups?
Nucleic acid type (DNA vs RNA)
External membrane or not (enveloped vs. naked)
What are the 5 basic steps of viral replication? Give a short explanation of each.
1. Attachment - Viruses attach to membrane of host cell.
2. Insertion - A hole is made in the host cell membrane and DNA or RNA of the virus is inserted into the cytoplasm of the host cell.
3. Replication - Viral genes are copied using transcription machinery of the host cell. Viral proteins are likewise produced using the host's translational machinery.
4. Assembly - New viruses are constructed from all newly made bits inside the host cell.
5. Release - The host cell is ruptured and new virus particles are released to infect new host cells.
What are the two viral pathways of virus replication?
Lytic
Lysogenic
What are the functions of the main structural components (nucleic acid and protein) in the replication of a virus?
Nucleic acid stores and passes on genetic material.
Protein attaches to the host cell.
What is the role of B-lymphocytes?
B cells are involved in the humoral immune response, which targets pathogens found in blood and lymph.
What is the role of T-lymphocytes?
T cells are involved in the cell-mediated immune response, which targets infected body cells.
What is the role of helper T lymphocytes (Th)?
Function indirectly to tell other immune cells about potential pathogens.
What is the role of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (Tc)?
Attack and destroy infected cells. They are the key component of the cell-mediated part of the adaptive immune system.
What is an antigen?
Any protein foreign to the body. It stimulates a response from the immune system.
What is an antibody and which cells of the humoral response of adaptive immunity (B cells or T cells) produce the antibody?
An antibody is a cell surface protein that binds pathogens and marks them for destruction by immune cells. They are produced by B cells.
What is the relationship between antigens and antibodies?
Antibodies bond to antigens which marks them for destruction.
Is the H1 protein of the influenza virus an antigen or an antibody?
Antigen
What is a vaccine?
Dead or weakened versions of infection to the body.
What is the relationship between a vaccine and immunological memory?
The vaccine activates naive B cells to produce antibodies and memory cells.
In the Daphnia experiment, some factors increased its heart rate. What are 2 negative consequences that may occur if the human heart was exposed to these substances for a long time?
High blood pressure
Exhaustion of the heart
In the Daphnia experiment, some factors decreased its heart rate. What is a negative consequence that may occur if the human heart was exposed to these substances for a long time?
Not enough circulation; therefore, not enough nutrients traveling in the blood to other cells.
Viruses are not considered alive. What are some reasons for this?
They have no plasma membrane, internal organelles, or metabolic processes, and they do not divide. They are an acellular parasite.
How does a virus evolve?
Through mutations in the transcription process. Mutations are more common in RNA viruses, so RNA viruses evolve more quickly.
There are two types of adaptive responses. Name these two types and name the molecules that control these types.
1. Cell-mediated immune response - controlled by T cells.
2. Humoral immune response - controlled by B cells and antibodies.
_______ include monocytes (the precursor of macrophages) and lymphocytes (B and T cells).
Leukocytes
Explain the adaptive immune system in 4 steps.
1. The macrophage engulfs the virus and sends the antigen to the surface of the cell.
2. The helper T cell binds to the antigen.
3. The T cell is activated and releases cytokines.
4. Depending on the cytokine released, either the humoral immune response or the cell mediated response is initiated.
Explain the cell-mediated response of adaptive immunity in 5 steps.
1. The macrophage engulfs the virus and sends the antigen to the surface of the cell.
2. The helper T cell binds to the antigen.
3. The T cell is activated and releases cytokines.
4. Depending on the cytokine released, either the humoral immune response or the cell mediated response is initiated.
5. Cytotoxic T cells are created and cloned. These cells have the same cell-surface receptors that are used to kill a certain virus.
In mammals, ammonia produced during protein metabolism is converted to _____ before excretion; in birds and reptiles the ammonia is converted to _____ before excretion. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
urea; uric acid
Homeostatic control of _____ is performed by the kidney. (Fill in the blank with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
concentration of nitrogenous waste products and blood pH
The functional unit of the kidney is the _____ and the initial step in urine formation is _____. (Fill in the blank with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
nephron; filtration
A sarcomere has parallel arrays of thick _____ filaments and thin _____ filaments. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.)
(QZ)
myosin; actin
When you pick up your backpack, which of the following is/are true?
I. Some of your arm muscles are pushing (forcefully expanding).
II. Some of your arm muscles are relaxed (no force applied).
III. Some of your arm muscles are pulling (forcefully contracting).
(QZ)
II and III
What terrestrial challenge are the skeletal and muscular systems of terrestrial vertebrates adapted for?
Gravity
What terrestrial challenge is the urinary system of terrestrial vertebrates adapted for?
Desiccation (drying out)
What are the 3 types of skeletons?
Endoskeleton
Exoskeleton
Hydrostatic skeleton
Skeleton that has muscle attachments on the outside of the skeleton.
Endoskeleton
Skeleton that covers the outside of the animal's body and provide areas for muscle attachment on the inside of the skeleton.
Exoskeleton
Skeleton that consists of fluid-filled compartments in which fluid is held under pressure.
Hydrostatic skeleton
What are the 2 advantages of an endoskeleton?
1. Grows as the animal grows
2. Can support more weight without becoming too heavy itself.
What are 3 disadvantages of an endoskeleton?
1. Doesn't provide great leverage for muscular work.
2. Energetically costly to support because tissues are living.
3. Provides minimal protection of critical organs (rib cage).
What are 2 advantages of an exoskeleton?
1. Protects all soft tissues.
2. Structure of muscle attachments provide better leverage so animals are very strong for their size.
What are 3 disadvantages to an exoskeleton?
1. Doesn't grow, so it must be shed.
2. Imposes size limit because of increasing weight with increasing size.
3. Energetically costly to repeatedly replace as the animal grows.
What are 2 advantages to a hydrostatic skeleton?
1. Not energetically expensive
2. Provides high flexibility
What are 2 disadvantages to a hydrostatic skeleton?
1. Requires a moist environment
2. Provides little protection
What are the 3 types of muscles?
Skeletal
Cardiac
Smooth
Muscles that move the body. Under voluntary control. Striated and densely packed. Long and cylindrical.
Skeletal muscles
Muscles in the heart. Under involuntary control. Striated, but not densely packed. Shorter and branched.
Cardiac muscles
Muscles in the GI tract, blood vessels, and urogenital tract. Under involuntary control. Use less ATP. Shares many components of skeletal muscles, but they're arranged less orderly and without sarcomeres.
Smooth muscles
What is the functional unit of the muscle?
Sarcomere
Segment of myofibrils delimited by z-line and made of thick filaments (myosin) and thin filaments (actin).
Sarcomere
What is the relationship between myofibrils and sarcomeres?
Sarcomeres are made up of myofibrils
What are the 7 steps of the sliding filament model? Pay particular attention to actin filaments, myosin filaments, ATP, and calcium ions.
1. Nerves release neurotransmitters that bind with receptors on the sarcolemma.
2. An action potential is generated in the sarcolemma.
3. Calcium is released from sarcoplasmic reticulum and binds to troponin.
4. Troponin changes shape and moves tropomyosin away from myosin binding sites.
5. Myosin changes shape, binds to actin and "pulls" thin filament.
6. ADP is released, ATP binds, and myosin releases actin.
7. ATP is broken into ADP+Pi and myosin is ready to bind again.
How does the nervous system, senses, muscular system, and skeletal system work together to allow animals to function within their environment?
The senses sense a stimulus, this is sent to the nervous system. The brain sends an impulse back through the nervous system to a particular muscle. The muscle contracts, and the skeleton (body) moves.
Why is it important to regulate water and solute content in different environments?
The different environments will have different tonicities (hypertonic, hypo-, iso-), so it is important to keep a stable water and solute concentration in the body. This is done through the urinary system in animals.
Functional unit of kidney where the molecular processes occur to maintain osmotic balance.
Nephron
What is the glomerulus? What does it do?
It's a small, hollow ball (Bowman's capsule) filled with capillaries (glomerulus) in which the larger molecules are kept in the blood, while smaller molecules are filtered out.
What is the difference between the composition of blood and the composition of the fluid (glomerulus filtrate) in the nephron as it leaves the glomerulus?
Protein content
What occurs in the part of the nephron known as the proximal convoluted tubule?
Most of the water and most salts are selectively absorbed into the blood at the proximal convoluted tubule.
What's the difference between the composition of blood and the composition of the fluid in the nephron as it leaves the proximal convoluted tubule?
The blood is hypertonic while the fluid is hypotonic.
We examined 3 urine samples and found someone with protein in their urine, someone with glucose, and someone with hGC. What are the 2 possible conclusions we can draw when we see a substance in urine?
A part of the kidney is not functioning properly
or
There is an unusual amount of the substance in the body (hGC in pregnancy)
What 3 molecules are reabsorbed from the nephron fluid as it passes through the loop of the nephron?
Water
Sodium
Chloride
What occurs in the part of the nephron known as the distal convoluted tubule?
It contains urea and other waste products. Most nutrients and ions have been reabsorbed into surrounding fluid and then into the blood.
What is the difference between the composition of blood and the composition of the fluid in the nephron as it leaves the distal convoluted tubule and passes into the collecting duct?
The blood has many nutrients, the fluid has urea and waste. This fluid is 4x more concentrated than blood.
A pregnancy test is used to determine the presence of a particular molecule in urine. What is this molecule?
hGC (human Chorionic Gonadotropin)
Why is hGC found in urine? How did it get there? Is this patient's kidney functioning normally?
It is produced by the placenta. The kidney is functioning normally (even though it's working harder). There is a ton of hGC i the body during pregnancy, so some of it filters out.
Explain the three steps of urine production and describe where these occur in the nephron.
1. Glomerular filtration - removes water and non-protein solutes from blood. In glomerulus.
2. Tubular reabsorption - Water, nutrients, and salts are removed from the filtrate and passed back to the blood. In the proximal convoluted tubule.
3. Tubular secretion - some solutes are actively transported from the blood to the interior of the tubule. In the distal convoluted tubule.
What are 3 adaptations made by animals for moving gametes between male and female on land?
External fertilization
Spermatophore
Internal fertilization
How does the urinary system relate to blood glucose levels?
Glucose (and other nutrients) are reabsorbed in the proximal tubule of nephron, thus maintaining glucose levels. Excess glucose in the filtrate is not reabsorbed and the body excretes the excess. This is a sign that glucose is too high rather than a mechanism to balance the level.
How does the nervous system relate to blood glucose levels?
If blood glucose levels drop, the brain's hunger center will activate and the animal will eat to gain more.
How does the circulatory system relate to blood glucose levels?
Transports materials, including glucose, to all cells of the body.
How does the muscular system relate to blood glucose levels?
The cells of the muscular system require a source of energy. Insulin causes the uptake of glucose into muscle cells. Also, glucagon turns glycogen into glucose, but this glucose is used by the muscles and doesn't affect blood glucose levels.
How does the digestive system relate to blood glucose levels?
Breaks down food into the monomer components of the major macromolecules, including the breakdown of complex carbohydrates into glucose. Also, the pancreas releases insulin (decreases blood sugar) and glucagon (increases sugar). Glucagon then causes the liver to release glucose.
How does the endocrine system relate to blood glucose levels?
The pancreas secretes insulin that regulates the uptake of glucose into cells and glucagon that regulates the release of glucose from the liver.
How does the integumentary system relate to body temperature?
Sweat glands are located in the skin, providing evaporating cooling. Blood vessels in the dermis dilate or constrict to warm or cool. Hair, feathers, and fat in the layers of skin also provide insulation.
How does the muscular system relate to body temperature?
ATP is converted to ADP during the rapid muscle contractions of shivering. Some energy from this reaction is lost as heat that helps warm the body.
How does the digestive system relate to body temperature?
Breaks down food to be used in energy production. Energy can then be used for shivering to increase temperature. Water absorbed by the digestive system can be used to cool the body through sweating/evaporation.
How does the respiratory system relate to body temperature?
A great deal of heat energy is either gained or lost through the respiratory system. For example, warming and moistening incoming air. Thus, reducing heat loss.
How does the nervous system relate to body temperature?
The autonomic part of the brain integrates information about internal temperature and responds by causing the muscles to shiver or sweat to be produced.
How does the endocrine system relate to body temperature?
The hypothalamus of the brain produces hormones that affect the thyroid gland. The thyroid then secretes hormones that increase or decrease metabolism to increase or decrease temperature.
How does the circulatory system relate to body temperature?
The water for sweating comes from the circulatory system. Also, blood vessels are dilated or constricted to assist in warming or cooling parts of the body.
How does the respiratory system relate to acid-base balance?
pH can be increased or decreased by varying respiratory rate and thus, increasing or decreasing CO₂ concentrations in the blood.
How does the circulatory system relate to acid-base balance?
Blood plasma contains bicarbonate as a buffer.
How does the nervous system relate to acid-base balance?
Chemoreceptors in major arteries detect changes in CO₂ levels and signal the brain. Also, sensors in the medulla oblongata of the brain can directly detect pH changes in the cerebrospinal fluid. The brain alters respiratory rates in response to either signal and decreases or increases CO₂ as needed.
How does the digestive system relate to acid-base balance?
Acids and bases are consumed in every meal and function of many digestive organs is dependent on pH.
How does the urinary system relate to acid-base balance?
The nephron can reabsorb or excrete H⁺ ions to help regulate pH.
What 6 systems are directly related to the blood glucose levels in the body?
Urinary
Nervous
Circulatory
Muscular
Digestive
Endocrine
What 7 systems are directly related to the body temperature?
Integumentary
Muscular
Digestive
Respiratory
Nervous
Endocrine
Circulatory
What 5 systems are directly related to the acid-base balance in the body?
Respiratory
Circulatory
Nervous
Digestive
Urinary
Sets found in the same folder