Upgrade to remove ads
Only $35.99/year

GEOG 1111 FINAL EXAM (Hopkins)

Terms in this set (224)

Weathering
The processes by which rocks are chemically altered or physically broken with little or no transportation of the loosened or altered materials

It can occur both on and below the surface.
Mechanical or Physical Weathering
The breaking down or disintegration (fragmentation) of rocks with no chemical alteration.
Chemical Weathering
Decomposition through chemical alteration; Water is often necessary, since the rock is essentially dissolved away.
By-products of weathering
In most cases rocks will be broken down by a combination of chemical and mechanical weathering process.
Regolith
partially weathered rock below the surface which overlays the bedrock
Parent material
unconsolidated material that is the basis of soil development/formation
Erosion
long-distance carrying away of weathered material
Primary agents of erosion
gravity, water, wind, ice
Soil
thin layer of unconsolidated material covering the Earth's surface composed of both mineral & organic material.
Dirt
soil without the organic material
Soil profile
vertical array of soil layers (horizons)
Soil horizon
layer of soil within the soil profile
Soil is a _________ resource, but not an ______________ resource
renewable; inexhaustible
Minerals
inorganic compounds of a soil
Organic matter
organic compounds of a soil
Water
Fills pore spaces in the soil, or forms a thin film around particles
Air
Fills pore spaces, when water isn't there.
Parent Material
type of rock and minerals from which the soil was formed
Residual soil
soil formed from the underlying rock.
Transported soil
soil formed from material not found in the underlying rock, but that was transported
Biological Agents
The quantity and type of decomposers will affect the amount of humus (organic matter) in the soil
Time
more time means more complete soil development
Soils develop layers or horizons by 4 processes
addition, transformation, depletion and translocation
Addition
adding material to the top of the soil already present.
Transformation
The continued weathering of soil/rock; soil components being physically and/or chemically broken down into their smallest size possible
Depletion
particles are carried downward through the soil by water from one area to another
Translocation
the material moved by depletion is deposited into a lower layer; its moved
__________ & ______________ are basically the beginning and ending of an overall process
Depletion and translocation
Soil Profiles/Horizons
particular sequence of soil layers
'O' horizon
Organic horizon; formed primarily by addition.
'A' horizon
Formed by Transformation
'E' horizon
formed by depletion
'B' horizon
formed by translocation
'C' horizon
lowest soil horizon in a soil profile and formed by Transformation
R Horizon
bedrock first affected
SOIL PROPERTIES
color, texture, Structure,consistence (cohesion), porosity, pH
Solum
the A, E & B horizons
Soil texture
size of the soil particles that comprise the soil; an indication of the soils compactness & amount of pore space (porosity) within the soil
Texture categories
sand, clay, silt
Loam
used to describe soil NOT based on particle size
Field Capacity
ability of a soil to hold water against the downward pull of gravity
Sandy soils
lower field capacity
Clay soils
higher field capacity
Platy and Prismatic
higher field capacity
Blocky and Spheroidal
lower field capacity
dark brown to black soils =
high organic content
Reddish or orangeish soils =
high Fe and/or Al oxide content
Entisols
recent origins
Inceptisols
weakly developed 'B' horizon
Vertisols
clay-rich soils which swell or shrink with moisture
Andisols
volcanic material, particularly ash
Histosols
found in a swamp or marsh
Ex of histosols
Okefenokee Swamp of GA
Aridisols
desert areas
Mollisols
dark, organic-rich A horizon
Mollisols are found where?
grassland soils such as under the great plains (US)
Alfisols are found where?
found under deciduous forests
Alfisols
mineral-rich soils
Spodosols are found where?
coniferous (needle-leaf evergreen pine forests)
Ultisols
warm, wet climate soils with a clayey B horizon (Bt)
Ultisols are found where?
found in the southeastern US
Oxisols
(Bt), rich in clay & hydrated oxides of Fe & Al
Where is oxisol found?
tropical rainforest areas
Gelisols
crytoturbation (frost churning)
biogeography
The geography of flora (plants) and fauna (animals)
Biodiversity
variety of life forms, the ecological roles they perform and the genetic diversity they contain
# of species
1.75 million identified & described
Genetic Diversity
the variety in the genetic makeup among individuals within a species
Species Diversity
is the variety among the species or distinct types of organisms found in different habitats/ecosystems.
Ecological Diversity
is the variety of forests, deserts, grasslands, streams, lakes, oceans, coral reefs wetlands & other biological communities or ecosystems.
Functional Diversity
is the biological & chemical processes or functions such as energy flow & matter cycling needed for the survival of species & biological communities.
Processes
Photosynthesis, energy flow, ecological efficiency (food webs), plant and animal succession, geographic dispersal
atoms
protons, electrons, neutrons, ions
elements
non-human made ('natural') & human-made
compounds
organic (hydrocarbons, carbohydrates, etc) & inorganic
Phytogeography
plant distribution
zoogeography
animal distribution
Photosynthesis
the process of converting CO2 and H2O into carbohydrate and O2 using sunlight as the energy source
Rate of Respiration
by the plant whereby the plant uses some of the energy-food created in photosynthesis. (also involves glycolysis, & the Krebs Cycle)
If increase respiration →
then decrease efficiency of photosynthesis
If increase heat (temperature) →
then increase respiration
If increase water →
then increase CO2 uptake by plant which increases photosynthesis
If increase rate of evapotranspiration →
then decrease efficiency of photosynthesis
result of photosynthesis
creation of Biomass or useful chemical energy (plant & animal)
Plant Biomass/phytomass
is formed directly by photosynthesis
Animal biomass
is formed indirectly by photosynthesis
highest amounts of Biomass created in
warm, wet areas
Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
is the net photosynthesis for a given Community.
NPP equation
NPP =photosynthesis - respiration
trophic level
each step or stage of the food web
Autotrophs
are organisms that make their own "food"
Ex: Plants or primary producers (1st trophic level)
Heterotrophs
are the organisms that must consume other organisms to get the energy (food) they need.
Animals (2nd, 3rd, 4th trophic levels)
Decomposers
are the organisms that obtain their energy by breaking down dead organic material. Ex: bacteria, fungi.
Ecological Efficiency
is the idea of how well, or the percentage of, energy that is passed along a food chain or web
as energy is moved along a food pathway or chain, _____________
efficiency decreases
Evolution or Biological Evolution
is the change in genetic makeup of a population, through successive generations.
Macroevolution
is the long term, large scale changes that lead to new species (speciation)
Microevolution
is the small genetic changes or mutations (random changes of the DNA in a cell) that occur in a population
Mutations are _______________
random & unpredictable
Natural Selection
is a process by which a particular beneficial gene or set of genes is reproduced in succeeding generations more than other genes.
Adaptation or adaptive trait
is any genetically controlled structural,
physiological, or behavioral characteristic that helps an organism survive & reproduce
structural adaptations:
coloration, mimicry, protective cover, gripping mechanisms
physiological adaptations:
hibernation, chemical protection
behavioral adaptations
migration, various mating behaviors
Ecological Niche
refers to the total way of life or role of a species in an ecosystem
Habitat
refers to the physical location in which a species lives
Species
is a group of organisms that resemble one another in appearance, behavior, chemical makeup and processes and genetic structure.
Speciation
is the formation of 2 or more species from one species
Geographic Isolation
is the geographic separation of a
population of a species into different areas for fairly long times.
Reproductive Isolation
is the long-term reproductive separation of members of a sexually reproducing species.
Generalists species
those with a broad ecological niche meaning
they can live in many different habitats; less prone to extinction
Ex of generalist species
humans, flies, cockroaches, mice & rats, raccoons, coyotes
Specialists species
are those with a narrow ecological niche; more prone to extinction
ex of specialist species
pandas, snail kite
Native species
refers to organisms that normally live and thrive in a particular ecosystem in which they evolved.
Ex of native species
American bison, American alligator
Nonnative species
refers to organisms that have migrated from the
ecosystem in which they evolved, into a different ecosystem, AND the move was facilitated by humans
ex of nonnative species
kudzu, Argentine fire ants
Indicator species
refers to organisms that serve as early warnings
that a community or ecosystem is being degraded
Keystone species
refers to organisms that play roles affecting many other organisms in an ecosystem.
ex of keystone species
wolf, leopard, lion, sharks
Extinction
is the complete disappearance of a living species from the Earth.
Megatherm organisms
adapted to high temperatures
Microtherm organisms
adapted to low temperatures
Xerophyte organisms
are adapted to low moisture conditions
Hygrophyte organisms
are adapted to high moisture conditions
Deciduous plants drop their leaves as a result of ________________
low water availability and not colder temperatures
elevation affects
temperature and moisture
slope steepness affects
water availability and soil thickness
shade intolerant
(need direct sunlight)
north facing slope of mtn
cooler/wetter
south facing slope of mtn
warmer/drier
Interspecific Competition
refers to when 2 or more species utilize the same resources
Resource Partitioning
the process of dividing up resources in an ecosystem, with each organism developing its own ecological niche
Predation
often increases the biodiversity of the ecosystem
Parasitism
parasite benefits and the host is often harmed
ex of parasitism
tapeworms, ticks, fleas, mosquitoes
Mutualism
usually both species benefit from the interaction
ex of mutualism
honeybees & flowers
Commensalism
One organism benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed
Amensalism
inhibits growth of another by releasing toxins into the environment.
Phytogeography
The study of the distribution of plants & their ecosystems
Biogeochemical Cycles
Water, Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, & Sulfur
Hydrologic (Water) Cycle
evapotranspiration, condensation, precipitation, run-off
Consequences of Water Cycle
Causes soil erosion (adding to erosion in one place & deposition in another)

medium for transporting nutrients

Purification of the water supply.
Carbon Cycle
flow of carbon in the atmosphere;

controlling the temperature at the Earth's surface as
"Greenhouse Gas",

Is removed from the air by producers (plants) to make complex carbohydrates

produced during aerobic respiration

'energy' source in the form of fossil fuels
Oxygen and Hydrogen cycle in a similar fashion to _____________. All three are important elements in ___________________-.
Carbon; carbohydrates
Nitrogen Cycle
important element for most organisms, BUT cannot be absorbed and used directly as a nutrient by plants and animals;

consists of 4 steps (Nitrogen fixation, Nitrification, Ammonification, Denitrification)
Nitrogen fixation
specialized bacteria convert gaseous nitrogen (n2) into ammonia (nh4)
Nitrification
ammonia in soil is converted to nitrite ions ( NO2-) by aerobic bacteria, & nitrate ions ( NO3-) which are taken up by plants.
Ammonification
converting of nitrogen rich organic compounds into ammonia (nh3) and ammonium ions (nh4)
Denitrification
the conversion of ammonia & ammonium ions back into nitrite & nitrate, and then into N2
Phosphorus (P) Cycle
important for plant growth but is a limiting factor in plant growth because of its low abundance in most soils ; If increased amounts of P are introduced into aquatic systems it can lead to increased plant, bacteria, & alga growth, which leads to oxygen depletion
Sulfur Cycle
Human activities account for about 33% of all sulfur compounds & 99% of SO2 reaching the atmosphere.
Biome
broadest justifiable division of plants and animals
Basic types of biomes
deserts, grasslands, forests
Tropical Rainforest
broad-leaf evergreen trees; highest biodiversity of any terrestrial environment
ex of tropical rainforest
banana trees
Tropical Deciduous Forest
pronounced dry season; so trees lose their leaves during the dry season
Tropical Savanna
tall grassland with widely spaced trees
Desert
Vegetation is of the xerophytic or succulent variety
Temperate or Mid-Latitude Grassland
dominated by grasses; areas of short-grass or long-grass; commonly known as prairic
Ex of temperate or mid-latitude grassland
Great Plains (US)
Temperate or Mid-Latitude Deciduous & Mixed Forest
dominated by broadleaf deciduous trees of eastern US; areas of mixed deciduous & needle-leaf evergreen trees; common in SE US
Ex of temperate or mid latitude deciduous and mixed forest
oak, birch, walnut, maple
Temperate Rainforest
needleleaf evergreen trees; Pacific northwest coast(US)
Ex of temperate rainforest
redwoods, Douglas fir, Sitka spruce
Mediterranean Scrub or Scrublands
widely spaced evergreen & deciduous trees, and hard or waxy-leaved evergreen bushes; dominated by cyclic fire disturbance
ex of Mediterranean Scrub or Scrublands
chaparral of coastal California
Northern Coniferous Forest
coniferous or cone-bearing, needle-leaf evergreen trees; Boreal Forest in Canada and the Taiga in Siberia.
ex of Northern Coniferous Forest
Spruce, hemlock, fir, pine, larch
Tundra
dominated by mosses, lichens, sedges (marsh grasses); controlled by permafrost
Ecological Succession
Plant size is smaller, species diversity lower, food webs simpler, niches fewer and overly complexity of the ecosystem lower in early
successional stages compared to later stages.
Primary Succession
sequential development of communities in
a bare area or starting in a condition of bare rock
Secondary Succession
sequential development of communities in an area in which vegetation has been removed or destroyed but the soil is not destroyed; not starting on bare rock
Ex of secondary succession
an old farm field
Linear autogenic succession
one way succession in which a stage or assemblage is not repeated or skipped
Cyclic autogenic
succession in which a stage or assemblage is repeated and/or skipped but with no disturbance
Allogenic
change in species composition brought about by environmental disturbance
ex of allogenic
Disease, fire
Animal succession will progress in conjunction with _________________
the plant succession.
Zoogeography
The geographical distribution of animal species & populations on the Earth's surface
What controls where an animal lives?
ecological niche or broad habitat and biome
two types of aquatic life zones
saltwater/marine and freshwater
Layers within the water column
surface, middle, & bottom
important environmental factors to consider in aquatic systems
salinity
temperature
access to sunlight
dissolved oxygen
availability of nutrients
Coastal Zone
area of high net primary productivity
Sandy & Rocky Beaches/Shores
areas where the waves break onto either a sand or rock beach, but areas that may support a wide variety of plant and animal life.
Estuaries
where freshwater and saltwater mix
Coastal wetlands
areas of vegetation, covered with saltwater
ex of coastal wetland
Salt marshes & Mangrove, & coral reefs
Open Sea
divided into 3 vertical zones: euphotic bathyal
abyssal
Euphotic Zone
level of high sunlight penetration
Bathyal Zone
level of medium sunlight penetration
Abyssal Zone
the level of very low to no sunlight penetration
Lakes
can be classified based on their nutrient content & primary productivity.
Oligotrophic lakes
newly formed, nutrient-poor lakes, and have crystal clear blue or green water
Eutrophic lakes
older, nutrient rich with murky brown or green color and poor visibility
Mesotrophic lakes
mature but not old lakes; Most lakes fall within this category. (MIDDLE)
Zones of a river system
Source, transition, and flood plain zones
Source Zone
narrow, mountain stream section usually
located at higher elevations. (Youthful Stage)
Transition Zone
the wider, lower-elevation stream section. (Mature Stage)
Flood Plain Zone
the very wide, gradual sloped river
section and encompasses the area of rivers which empty into the ocean. (Old Age Stage)
Inland wetlands
habitats which are a mixture of plants and open water
Marshes
dominated by grasses
Swamps
dominated by trees and shrubs
EX of swamp
Okefenokee Swamp in Georgia
Prairie potholes
freshwater depressions carved out by glaciers
Example of Prairie potholes
kettle lakes found in the northern Great Plains
Floodplains
areas on the sides of rivers which receive the
excess water during heavy rains & floods
Zoogeographic Realm
geographically based delineation of animal assemblages
Neoarctic Realm
one of the least diverse realms;

ex:
American bison
pronghorn antelope
prairie dogs
American alligator
Paleoarctic Realm
siberian tiger, panda
Holarctic
Paleoarctic & Neoarctic combined

ex: polar bear, walrus, bearded seal
Neotropic Realm
One of the richest and most diverse faunal assemblages

ex: tapir, jaguar, llama, macaws
Paleotropic Realm
encompasses SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Also one of the richest and most varied faunal assemblages

EX: zebra, giraffe, ostrich, gorilla, chimpanzee
Madagascan Realm
lemurs, elephants, shrews
Indo-Malayan Realm
orangutan, Bengal tiger, mongoose
Australian Realm
highest diversity of marsupial mammals

EX: kangaroo, wombat, koala; also Monotreme mammals reside here (ex: Duck-billed platypus)
New Zealand Realm
kiwi
Pacific Realm
Each island group is often quite unique due to its isolation;


EX: Hawaiian honeycreepers (birds), Galapagos finches
Conservation
saving single species or saving whole habitats and ecosystems; SLOSS (Single Large Or Several Small)
Habitat Destruction
(carried out by humans); considered the main cause of extinction among plant and animal species today
Introduced or Exotic Species (Alien species)
Most exotic species are generalists and thus often out-compete the native species;

EX: kudzu into southern US, mongoose into Hawaii
Recommended textbook explanations

Environmental Science: Sustaining Your World

1st EditionG. Tyler Miller, Scott E. Spoolman
785 explanations

Holt Environmental Science (Florida)

1st EditionKaren Arms
1,126 explanations

Environmental Science: Your World, Your Turn

1st EditionJay H. Withgott
955 explanations

Environmental Science

14th EditionEldon D. Enger
419 explanations