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The Entire AP Psych Book!

Terms in this set (661)

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 003)

early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 004)

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 004)

0experimental psychology

the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 005)

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 006, 266)

humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 006)

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 007, 119)

the science of behavior and mental processes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 007)

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 009)

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 010, 135)

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 011)

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 011)

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 012, 077)

cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 012, 135)

psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)

social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 013)

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 462)

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 754)

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 828)

human factors psychology

an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 828)

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 015)

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 015, 590)

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 015)

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 016, 324)

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 016)

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 031)

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 035)

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 038)

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 038)

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 039)

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 039)

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 040)

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 040)

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 042)

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 043)

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 043)

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 043)

a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 046)

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1 to +1). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 046)

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 046)

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 050)

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variables. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 052)

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 052)

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 052)

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 053, 622)

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 058)

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 058)

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 058)

normal curve (normal distribution)

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 059, 621)

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 060)

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 060)

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 065, 776)

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 068)

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 068)

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 052)

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 012, 077)

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)

refractory period

(1) a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 079)

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)

"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 082)

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 082)

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 083, 342)

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. (Also called the skeletal nervous system.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 089)

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 090)

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 090)

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 091)

pituitary gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 091)

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 094)

electroencephalogram (EEG)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 095)

CT (computed tomography)

scan a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 095)

PET (positron emission tomography)

scan a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 095)

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer -generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 095)

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as its structure. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 096)

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 097 )

the base of the brainstem; controls heart-beat and breathing. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 097)

the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 097)

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 098)

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 098)

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 098)

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 099)

a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 099)

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 104)

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 104)

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 107)

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 109)

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 111)

the formation of new neurons. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 112)

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 114)

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 114)

our awareness of ourselves and our environment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 118, 219)

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 7, 119)

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 120)

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)

every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)

identical twins (monozygotic twins)

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 125)

fraternal twins (dizygotic twins)

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 125)

molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 129)

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 129, 632)

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 131)

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 131)

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 12, 135)

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 10, 135)

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 136)

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 152)

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 152)

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 152)

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 152)

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 152)

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 154)

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 154)

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret.(Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 155)

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 155)

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 156)

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 156)

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 157)

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 157, 336)

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 158)

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 158)

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 159)

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 163)

extrasensory perception (ESP)

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 167)

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 167)

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 171)

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 172)

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 172)

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 172)

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 172)

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 172)

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 172)

(1) in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 172)

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 173)

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 173)

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 173)

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 173)

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 173)

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 175)

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 176, 319)

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color)

theory the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 178)

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 179)

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 182)

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 183)

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 183)

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 184)

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 184)

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 184)

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 184)

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 185)

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 185)

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, brightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 186)

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 187)

perceptual adaptation

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 191)

the sense or act of hearing. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 194)

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 195)

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 195)

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 195)

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 195)

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 195)

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves. (Also called nerve deafness.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 197)

conduction hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 197)

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 198)

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 199)

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 199)

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 203)

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 209)

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 209)

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 210)

embodied cognition

in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 211)

our awareness of ourselves and our environment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 118, 219)

a social interaction in which one person (the subject) responds to another person's (the hypnotist's) suggestion that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 219)

posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 220)

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 222)

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 226)

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 226)

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 227)

periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. (Adapted from Dement, 1999.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 227)

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 228, 685)

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 228)

nonrapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 228)

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 229)

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 238)

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 238)

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 239)

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 239)

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 240)

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 241)

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 241)

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 243)

substance use disorder

continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 246)

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 246)

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 246)

compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors (such as gambling) despite known adverse consequences. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 247)

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 247)

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 248)

alcohol use disorder

(popularly known as alcoholism). Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 249)

drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 250)

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 250)

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy, and methamphetamine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 250)

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 250)

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 250)

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 252)

methamphetamine

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 253)

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 253)

psychedelic ("mind -manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 254, 439, 856)

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 254)

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 255)

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 255)

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 263)

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 264, 468)

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).(Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 264)

any event or situation that evokes a response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 264)

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 265)

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 266)

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 6, 266)

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 266)

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, an un-learned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 267)

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response (UR). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 267)

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 268)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 268)

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 268)

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 268)

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 269)

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 269)

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 269)

(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 270)

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 275)

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 275)

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 276)

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 276)

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 276)

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 277)

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 277)

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 278)

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 278)

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 278)

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 279)

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 279)

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 279)

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 279)

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 280)

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 280)

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 280)

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 281)

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 289)

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 289)

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 289)

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 297)

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 297)

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 297, 361)

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 297)

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 298)

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 298)

problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly—by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 298)

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 298)

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 299)

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 300)

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 300)

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 301)

observational learning

learning by observing others. (Also called social learning.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 304)

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 304)

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 304)

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 307)

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 318)

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 319)

the process of retaining encoded information over time. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 319)

the process of getting information out of memory storage. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 319)

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 176, 319)

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 319)

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 319)

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 319)

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 320)

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 320)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 320)

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 320)

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 320)

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 322)

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 322)

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 323)

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 323)

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 324)

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 16, 324)

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 324)

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 325)

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 330)

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 332)

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 333)

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 334)

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 334)

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 334)

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 157, 336)

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 337)

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 337)

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 342)

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 342)

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 345)

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 345)

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 346, 560)

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 347)

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 349)

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 349)

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 356, 476)

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 356)

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 356)

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 357)

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 357)

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 357)

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 361)

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 361)

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 297, 361)

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 362)

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 363)

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 363)

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 364)

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 364)

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 365)

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 367)

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 368)

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 372)

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 373)

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 373)

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 373)

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 374)

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 375)

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements.(Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 375)

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 375)

impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 377)

controls language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 377 )

Wernicke's area

controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 377)

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 379)

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 390)

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 391)

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 391)

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 391)

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 392)

Yerkes-Dodson law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.(Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 392)

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 393)

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 397)

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 398)

basal metabolic rate

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 398)

sexual response cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson—excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 406)

refractory period

(2) a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 407)

sexual dysfunction

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 407)

sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 408)

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 408, 526)

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 421)

James-Lange theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 421)

Cannon-Bard theory

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 422)

two-factor theory

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 422)

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes) accompanying emotion. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 428)

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 438)

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 439, 856)

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 442)

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 444)

tend and befriend

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 445)

psychophysiological illness

literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 448)

psychoneuroimmunology

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 448)

the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 448)

coronary heart disease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 451)

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 452)

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 452)

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 14, 462)

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 466)

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 466)

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 466)

(literally, "monster makers") agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 467)

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 467)

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 264, 468)

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 471)

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 356, 476)

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 477)

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 477)

(2) in developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 477)

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 478)

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 478)

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 479)

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 479)

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 479)

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 480)

autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 481)

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 483)

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 483)

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 488)

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 488)

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 489)

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early life critical period. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 489)

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 490)

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 492)

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 495, 572)

the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 500)

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 501, 789)

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 503)

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 503, 758)

gender identity

our sense of being male or female. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 504)

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 504)

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 504)

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 505)

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 513)

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 519)

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 519)

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 521)

emerging adulthood

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 523)

the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 526)

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 526)

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 408, 526)

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 527)

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 527)

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 527)

the first menstrual period. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 527)

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 529)

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation), the other sex (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 531)

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 540)

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 543)

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 543)

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 544)

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 555)

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 557)

(1) Sigmund Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 557)

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 557)

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 558)

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 558)

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 558)

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 559)

Oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 559)

psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure -seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 559)

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 560)

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 560)

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 346, 560)

psychodynamic theories

modern-day approaches that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 565)

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 566)

projective test

a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 567)

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 567)

Rorschach inkblot test

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 567)

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and our behaviors. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 568)

terror-management theory

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 568)

humanistic theories

view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 571)

self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 571)

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 572, 712)

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 492, 572)

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 576)

personality inventory

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 578)

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 578)

empirically derived test

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 578)

social-cognitive perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 587)

behavioral approach

in personality theory, this perspective focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 587)

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 588)

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 15, 590)

in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 594)

spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spot-light shines on us). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 594)

one's feelings of high or low self-worth. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 595)

one's sense of competence and effectiveness. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 595)

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 596)

excessive self-love and self-absorption. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 597)

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 598)

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 599)

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 607)

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 607)

general intelligence (g )

a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 608)

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 608)

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 609)

in psychology, grit is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 610, 834)

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 612)

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 618)

the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 618)

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100, with scores assigned to relative performance above or below average. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 618)

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 619)

a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 619)

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 620)

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 621)

normal curve (normal distribution)

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 59, 621)

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 622)

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 53, 622)

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 622)

predictive validity

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called criterion-related validity.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 345, 622)

a group of people from a given time period. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 625)

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 626)

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 626)

intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life. (Formerly referred to as mental retardation.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 629)

a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 629)

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 129, 632)

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 642)

psychological disorder

a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior. (Adapted from American Psychiatric Association, 2013.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 651)

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 652)

the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 653)

the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 654)

anxiety disorders

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 661)

generalized anxiety disorder

an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 662)

an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations. Often followed by worry over a possible next attack. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 662)

an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 662)

social anxiety disorder

intense fear of social situations, leading to avoidance of such. (Formerly called social phobia.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 662)

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 663)

fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide-open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 663)

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 664)

posttraumatic growth

positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 665)

psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes. See major depressive disorder, mania, and bipolar disorder. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 671)

major depressive disorder

a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, two or more weeks with fi ve or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 672)

a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 673)

bipolar disorder

a mood disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the over-excited state of mania. (Formerly called manic-depressive disorder.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 673)

compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 679)

a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished or inappropriate emotional expression. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 684)

a psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 684)

false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 684)

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 228, 685)

somatic symptom disorder

a psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause. (See conversion disorder and illness anxiety disorder.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 693)

conversion disorder

a disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found. (Also called functional neurological symptom disorder.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 694)

illness anxiety disorder

a disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease. (Formerly called hypochondriasis.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 694)

dissociative disorders

disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 694)

dissociative identity disorder (DID)

a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Formerly called multiple personality disorder. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 695)

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintain a starvation diet despite being significantly (15 percent or more) underweight. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 697)

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with purging (by vomit ing or laxative use) or fasting. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 697 )

binge-eating disorder

significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging or fasting that marks bulimia nervosa. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 697)

personality disorders

psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 698)

antisocial personality disorder

a personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 699)

treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 709)

biomedical therapy

prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person's physiology. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 709)

eclectic approach

an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 709)

(2) Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences—and the therapist's interpretations of them—released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 709)

in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 710)

in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 710)

in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 710)

psychodynamic therapy

therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 710)

insight therapies

a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person's awareness of underlying motives and defenses. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 711)

client-centered therapy

a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth. (Also called person-centered therapy.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 712)

active listening

empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 712)

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 572, 712)

behavior therapy

therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 716)

counterconditioning

behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 717)

exposure therapies

behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actual situations) to the things they fear and avoid. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 717)

systematic desensitization

a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 717)

virtual reality exposure therapy

an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to electronic simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 718)

aversive conditioning

a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 718)

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 719)

cognitive therapy

therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 720)

rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)

a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 721)

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 723)

therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interaction. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 723)

therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 724)

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 730)

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 731)

evidence-based practice

clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 732)

therapeutic alliance

a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work together constructively to overcome the client's problem. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 735)

the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 737)

psychopharmacology

the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 740)

antipsychotic drugs

drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 741)

antianxiety drugs

drugs used to control anxiety and agitation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 741)

antidepressant drugs

drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. (Several widely used antidepressant drugs are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors—SSRIs.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 741)

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 743)

repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)

the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 745)

surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 746)

a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 746)

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 14, 754)

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 754)

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 754)

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 756)

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 756)

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 756)

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 757)

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 503, 758)

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 759)

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 763)

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 764)

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 764)

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 771)

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 773)

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 773)

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 774)

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 775)

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 65, 776)

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 777)

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 780)

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 780)

(2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 780)

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 784)

"Us"—people with whom we share a common identity. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 784)

"Them"—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 784)

the tendency to favor our own group. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 784)

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 785)

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. (Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 786)

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 501, 789)

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 791)

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 792)

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 798)

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 803)

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 803)

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 804)

self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 804)

unselfish regard for the welfare of others. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 807)

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 808)

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 809)

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 809)

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 810)

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 810)

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 810)

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 812)

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 812)

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 813)

GRIT Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction

a strategy designed to decrease international tensions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 815)

a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 827)

industrial-organizational (I/O)

psychology the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 14, 828)

personnel psychology

an I/O psychology subfield that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 828)

organizational psychology

an I/O psychology subfield that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 828)

human factors psychology

an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 14, 828)

structured interviews

an interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 832)

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of skills or ideas; for control; and for attaining a high standard. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 834)

in psychology, grit is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 610, 834)

task leadership

goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 838)

social leadership

group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 838)

in psychology, the idea that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 846)

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 847)

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 847)

adaptation-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 851)

relative deprivation

the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 851)

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 439, 856)

aerobic exercise

sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; may also alleviate depression and anxiety. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 859)

complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)

as yet unproven health care treatments intended to supplement (complement) or serve as alternatives to conventional medicine, and which typically are not widely taught in medical schools, used in hospitals, or reimbursed by insurance companies. When research shows a therapy to be safe and effective, it usually then becomes part of accepted medical practice. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 863)

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